The Golden Triangle SEZ lies at the Mekong riverside, in Bokeo Province of Laos between 20°21′N and 20°22′N and between 100°5′E and 100°6′E, where Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand meet ( Figure 1 ). The area of the Golden Triangle SEZ is around 3,000 ha, and it was co-launched as SEZ since 2007 by the Laos government and the Chinese Hongkong Kings Roman group. The main buildings in the town include the Kings Romans Casino and a small Chinatown with shops, as well as hotels and restaurants around the main casino ( Figure 2A ).

The Boten SEZ is located in Luang Namtha Province of Laos, toward Mohan of Yunan Province in South China. The coordination is 21°11′N to 21°12′N and 101°40′E to 101°41′E, with a total area of 1,640 ha ( Figure 1 ). It was assigned as SEZ since 2003. The construction of a cross-border railway started in 2016 under the “Chinese One Belt One Road” initiative ² ( Figure 2B ).

The two SEZs were visited by the authors, a Chinese ecologist and a Dutch criminologist, in October 2019 and combined with an earlier on-site observation of the marketplace and interviews in the Golden Triangle SEZ in June 2017. We visited 13 shops and 3 restaurants in the Golden Triangle SEZ and 14 shops and 5 restaurants in Boten SEZ, including stores involved in former studies (i.e., EIA, 2015; Krishnasamy et al., 2018), as well as newly opened stores or restaurants. In both SEZs, the illegal wildlife trade is concentrated in certain areas; these areas with several streets were selected, and well-known illegal wildlife traders with shops were visited. Some of the visited shops specialized in traditional Chinese medicine, some sold tiger bone wines, while others were mainly doing business in animal products such as ivory, pangolin scales, and rhino horn. The same places were visited in 2017 and 2019, and the openly sold wildlife and wildlife products were observed and then later recorded on paper. The authors asked for the same high-valued wildlife species, including tigers, rhinos, bears, and pangolins, and recorded it when the wildlife for sale was openly displayed. The conservation status of the wildlife/products was checked according to the Laos Wildlife and Aquatic Law as well as the international Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

During the on-site observations, we asked for high-valued wildlife products such as ivory, rhino horn, pangolin scales, or tiger bone wine and whether we could book wildlife meals in restaurants, but no wildlife products were purchased or booked during the research. At each shop or restaurant, we recorded the GPS location, number of wildlife openly for sale, species, and conditions (taking photographs when possible) and elicited information from traders on the origin (captive bred or wild), market value, and turnover rates. We recorded evidence when the prices of wildlife products were openly displayed and by asking staff. The same on-site observation process was used in the Golden Triangle SEZ in 2017 and 2019 as well as in Boten SEZ in 2019 in order to compare the empirical results. Additional empirical data were acquired during conversations with store owners and sellers, which sometimes resulted in semistructured and open interviews as described below. The on-site observations are listed in Tables 1 , 2 , and the products found in the same area were compared between the two visits and earlier published references.

During our field visits, we also performed semistructured and open interviews on the illegal wildlife trade, particularly in relation to high-valued wildlife, including (parts of) tigers, rhinos, bears, and pangolins. In total, we interviewed 11 people in the Golden Triangle SEZ in 2017 and 12 people in 2019. In addition, we interviewed 9 people in Boten SEZ in 2019. The informants were directly or indirectly involved in the illegal wildlife trade, e.g., sellers, traders, and smugglers. The respondents provided their informed consent, and the conversations were held in Mandarin and then translated into English. Regarding the storage and processing of empirical data, recordings are valuable; however, considering the sensitivity of the subject, some interviews were not recorded (Davis et al., 2020). In such cases, note-taking (afterward) ensured the recording of the empirical data. This also resulted in more trustful situations where people were able to speak in more detail about their illegal activities (Polsky, 1967).

An important method for finding respondents was through snowball sampling: future participants were recruited from among their acquaintances, which is useful in contacting members of a population that are difficult to access (Goodman, 1961). Contact with gatekeepers was of great importance to gain access to the social world of illegal entrepreneurs (Davies et al., 2016). Gatekeepers are persons who control access to others and include key persons in the organizations as well as small players in the trade; they are “people who can open doors to people or places, who are aware of certain risks” (Boekhout van Solinge, 2014: p. 40). For instance, the first author has been in contact before with one informant with contacts with the staff in the casino in Golden Triangle SEZ. With his introduction, we were able to interview the staff about the trade situation in the casino and town. We repeatedly visited several stores after the store owners were familiar with us, some trust was established, and they were willing to provide more information (Van Uhm and Wong, 2019). To ensure confidentiality, the respondents were anonymized and pseudonyms were used in place of the respondent’s real name. This also allowed us to talk to key players in the illegal wildlife trade, including important and big traders of wildlife for the SEZs. During the conversation with the above key players, we acquired information about their business mode, including online/offline business structures, the ways to transport products across the borders, and the role of diversification or geographic displacement.

In addition, participant observation was used to understand the local dynamics of the illegal wildlife trade. By observing the process of the illegal trade, through direct, naturalistic observations, it was possible to gain a more in-depth understanding of the socioeconomic context in which actors operate, as well as to corroborate or refute information derived from the respondents (DeWalt and DeWalt, 2011). In addition, by observing and interpreting behavior and everyday practices in the Golden Triangle SEZ and Boten SEZ, the observations provided us the opportunity to obtain information and to engage in informal conversations and chats throughout the study period, which was helpful in clarifying and confirming data collected from the interviews. Empirical data from participant observations were collected through detailed field notes (see Lincoln and Guba, 1985).

This study sheds light on the naturalistic and local empirical dimension of the illegal wildlife trade in both SEZs, but the empirical results of this study are not generalizable to other SEZs. Since there is a thriving illegal wildlife trade and many people are involved, our interview sample is not representative. Moreover, given the sensitive nature of our topic, we are aware of questions related to the honesty of our informants. In order to strengthen the credibility and dependability of our research, we triangulated our on-site observations with interviews. The fieldwork nature of our study also enabled us to cross-check initial theoretical concepts with informants throughout the data collection phase.

In 2017 and 2019, we recorded dozens of tiger bone wines (26 and 29, respectively), tiger teeth (21 and 12, respectively), and ivory pieces (67 and 31, respectively) openly for sale in the Golden Triangle SEZ. Even though 3 tiger skins, 1 tiger skull, and 7 pieces of elephant skin were recorded in 2017, these products were not found in 2019. Similarly, 28 rhino horn pieces, 4 rhino horns, and 18 casques of helmeted hornbills were offered for sale in 2017 but were not openly sold in 2019 ( Table 1 ). The market has transformed and has become more “underground.” For example, pictures of illegal wildlife, such as rhino horn and tiger bone, were provided by key players in the illegal wildlife business who were able to arrange illegal wildlife on short notice. The products were in stock, e.g., upstairs in a building nearby. In addition, illegal wildlife products were available in the casino of the Golden Triangle SEZ in 2017, such as rhino horn pieces, ivory, helmeted hornbill casques, and bear bile ( Figure 3A ), but were not openly for sale anymore in 2019. In front of the casino, a small “zoo,” the Don Savannah Casino Zoo, was observed with 27 tigers and 36 bears in 2017. According to the informants, the animals were used for the tiger bone wines, tiger skins, and bear products (e.g., bear bile). In 2019, the bears and the cages of the bears had been removed to a different area, but 25 tigers were still present during our field trip ( Figure 3B ). Along the Mekong River, several restaurants offer endangered species, including pangolins. In general, fewer endangered species were openly offered for sale in 2019 in comparison to 2017 across the different wildlife species in the Golden Triangle SEZ.

In 2019, we recorded 13 bottles of tiger bone wine openly for sale, 8 tiger teeth, half a kilo of pangolin scales, and 20 bottles of bear bile wine among other wildlife products in Boten SEZ ( Table 2 ). Although a previous study in Boten SEZ found 290 boxes of bear bile powder (Krishnasamy et al., 2018), the same store was visited but only openly displayed 3 boxes ( Figure 4A ). These particular bear bile products and their packaging have been found by the authors for sale in other parts of Laos (e.g., Vientiane; Luang Namtha), Myanmar (e.g., Kengtung; Tachileick; Mong La), and China (e.g., Daluo; Kunming). The tiger bone wines were sold in shops but were also observed in restaurants. In one of the restaurants, a backbone of a tiger was observed in a tiger bone wine aquarium ( Figure 4B ). On a street just off the main road, many shops sold wines, including tiger bone wines. The bottles of tiger bone wine were openly sold to customers, some of them on their way back to China. In addition, some shops in the “old” market in Boten SEZ sold openly tiger teeth and bear bile powder boxes. Even though the volume of bear products openly for sale has decreased, illegal tiger products for sale seem to be increasing in Boten SEZ. This is in line with anecdotal evidence that bear trade is switching over to tiger trade and that illegal wildlife traders diversify into the tiger trade (Coals et al., 2020; Davis et al., 2020).

In the Golden Triangle SEZ and Boten SEZ, 84% (n = 27) of our informants were store owners, traders, staff in the casino, or waiters in restaurants. ³ They were directly or indirectly involved in the illegal trade in wildlife as sellers, traders, facilitators, or smugglers. In the Golden Triangle SEZ, tiger bone wine traders explained how high-quality tiger bone wine is produced in large aquariums with complete tiger skeletons where the wine has been aged for over 3 years in the center of the small Chinatown. The prices vary on the quality of the displayed tiger bone wines, from a few hundred to thousands of USD per bottle of tiger bone wine from the top segment (¥ 1,000–20,000). The tiger traders explained that they have close ties with the co-owner of the Golden Triangle SEZ in order to facilitate their (illegal) business.

The first author knew another trader of rhino horns and tiger bone wines from the field trip in 2017. At that time, the trader openly sold rhinoceros horns, tiger wines and skins, and casques of the helmeted hornbill among other high-valued wildlife products. He explained that his store has been raided by the Laos police, so he is now relocated slightly outside the China town center. We visited his new shop and he explained that he still trades under the counter in rhino horn and tiger products among other illegal wildlife, and people know about this via his WeChat account. This was confirmed by other respondents, who indicated that the open sales of illegal wildlife products in the Golden Triangle SEZ are declining, ⁴ but the trade continues via social media. Illegal wildlife traders explained how they increasingly use WeChat for business purposes in order to avoid detection. This reflects the transformation of the market and seems to support that the open trade is slightly disappearing compared to 2017, but that illegal wildlife products are still available on request. Remarkably, three shops on the main street of Chinatown still sell openly tiger bone wine.

Another clear difference in time is that, in 2017, the casino in the Golden Triangle SEZ sold openly rhino horn, ivory, tiger bone wine, and casques of helmeted hornbills, while that was no longer the case in 2019. Two interviewed employees of the casino explained that this has been the case since the US sanctions, but that both wildlife and drugs (methamphetamine) are still provided on request. Finally, the “zoo” with tigers is smaller than in 2017. In 2017, in addition to tigers, there was also an enclosure for bears. The animals are said to be intended for zoo purposes, but in reality, the production of tiger bone wines, meat, and skins is part of the “business model,” according to informants. However, the 36 bears were removed to a different section, and recently, another tiger and bear zoo/farm has been established nearby, which reflects geographic displacement to other areas. ⁵

In Boten, one of our respondents was a key wildlife trader in the main street, well-known for her trade in wildlife products, particularly bear bile (Krishnasamy et al., 2018). She explained that bear bile products were locally manufactured in the bear farm of Boten, but since the bear farm was removed, trading in other products has become more attractive. For example, a relatively large number of shops off the main road now have diversified into tiger bone wine businesses and have tiger products in stock and openly for sale.

According to an illegal wildlife trader, the tiger bone wine can easily be smuggled across the border into China, as they put the tiger bone wine in another bottle and bring the empty tiger bone bottle separately. In this way, there is a low chance of control at the border. The same technique was also mentioned during an interview with two key tiger traders in the Golden Triangle SEZ and seems to be common knowledge among tiger bone wine traders in Laos.

Several wildlife traders referred to relatives and friends who live in both the Boten and Golden Triangle SEZs and are part of the same wildlife networks; this would facilitate the trade between the two special economic zones. For instance, two illegal wildlife traders in the Golden Triangle SEZ worked before in Boten SEZ, and relatives in the Golden Triangle SEZ provide rhino horns and ivory to a wildlife trader in Boten SEZ.

Moreover, several wildlife traders explained to have good contacts with the customs. The owner of a restaurant that offers tiger bone wine and has bear paws and pangolins in a freezer in Boten explained that the Laos customs are good friends, and the authors observed how a customs official indeed had lunch at their place, while tiger bone wine, bear paws, and pangolin meat are openly advertised in the restaurant. The owner explained that their symbiotic relationship enables wildlife to be smuggled into China without intervention. Another wildlife trader argued that recently it has become more difficult to smuggle whole rhinoceros’ horns into China; for larger consignments, they use rather professional smuggling networks that are also involved in drugs. This reflects the diversification of crime groups into wildlife trafficking (Van Uhm and Wong, 2021).