An intensive multi-parametric monitoring investigation was conducted at Santiaguito from November 2014 to May 2017, the first such long-term study of the volcano. We conducted 7 multi-parametric field campaigns in November 2014, April 2015, December 2015, January 2016 (as part of the Workshop on Volcanoes), June 2016, February 2017, and May 2017. In November 2014, we deployed a temporary network of geophysical instruments consisting of 11 seismometers and five acoustic infrasound microphones (Figure 1). The seismometer network included five Nanometrics Trillium Compact (T = 120 s) three-component broadband instruments, and six Lennhartz LE-3Dlite (T = 1 s) three-component short-period instruments. The microphones were iTem prs100 instruments (Delle Donne and Ripepe, 2012) and were co-located with the broadband seismometers. Table 1 lists all the stations deployed in the network, along with their dates of deployment and recovery. The stations were strategically deployed around the Santiaguito dome complex to achieve optimal azimuthal coverage (Figure 1). Data were recorded on-site at a rate of 100 Hz, with 24-bit resolution.

During the visits to Santiaguito, we complemented the geophysical dataset with optical and thermal observations. Thermal infrared (TIR) videos were recorded with a FLIR T450sc infrared camera equipped with a 30 mm lens (FOV: 15 × 11.25, IFOV: 0.82 mrad). During thermal image capture, we recorded the atmospheric temperature, humidity, and the distance from the lava dome for appropriate corrections of signal transmissivity through the atmosphere.

Regular activity at Santiaguito during 2014 was punctuated by a major dome collapse followed by the emplacement of a lava flow. The collapse, which occurred on 9th May, removed a significant section of the eastern flank of El Caliente vent and produced a PDC that traveled ~7 km to the south; 1 × 10⁶ m³ of tephra was deposited. This was followed in the next 2 weeks by a series of lahars, including two major events on 6th June and 15th July that damaged local infrastructure and forced temporary evacuations. Shortly after the 9th May collapse, a lava flow was observed descending the newly formed collapse scar and generating incandescent rockfalls. The flow continued for the rest of 2014, splitting into two lobes and eventually halting in December at a final length of 3.5 km from the El Caliente vent (Global Volcanism Program, 2015). Throughout this period of activity, small gas-and-ash explosions continued to occur at regular intervals, forming plumes up to 1 km above the vent. No large explosions were reported during this period.

During the deployment of the instrument network in November/December 2014, regular gas-and-ash explosions were observed from El Caliente (Figure 2B). Incandescence was observed at the vent, although lava effusion was negligible or had ceased (Figures 3A,B). Previous investigations have found correlations between local incandescence intensity and gas fluxing from the vent surface of El Caliente (Johnson et al., 2014). We observe a variation in the location of temperature intensities across the surface of the vent during this time period (white arrows in Figures 3A,B), indicating the dynamic nature of the vent during this phase. Frequent rockfalls occurred at the top of the lava flow on the El Caliente vent rim, and at or near the front of the lava flow lobes. Rockfalls were also frequently observed descending the unstable 1902 crater wall on the southwestern flank of Santa Maria (not linked to the ongoing effusive activity). No large explosions or PDCs were reported during this period.

Regular explosive activity continued until July/August 2015. At this point explosions were less regular (<10 per day) and more energetic than before, sometimes accompanied by PDCs (Figure 2C). The largest group of explosions in 2015 were observed in December, producing ash plumes up to 7 km above sea level (a.s.l.). The explosions during this phase of activity were visually darker and thus more ash-rich than in 2014. Fine ash fell at least 10 km from the vent in all directions, and eruptive plumes were tracked by the Washington VAAC for 280 km before dissipating. During this phase, heavy rainfall triggered hot lahars that descended along river drainages to the south on 8th September, 11th September, 21st October, and 30th October (Global Volcanism Program, 2016a).

From January to June 2016, major ash-rich explosions and PDCs occurred at irregular intervals with smaller explosions in between. Plumes rose to 5 km a.s.l. with ash regularly falling on villages up to 20 km from the vent. Thermal images captured in January 2016 indicate higher temperatures over a broader area of the vent surface (Figure 3C). In February 2016, a series of strong explosions were reported to be producing dense ash clouds up to 6 km a.s.l. and accompanied by PDCs. Explosions on 7th February were heard up to 25 km away (Global Volcanism Program, 2016b). The largest explosions of the entire 2-year period, observed in April and May 2016, ejected 2–3 m diameter blocks up to 3 km away from the vent, and excavated the summit crater to ~300 m width and ~175 m depth (Figure 2H). In early July, large meter-size, breadcrust bombs were discovered ~1.8 km away from the vent (Figure S1). Heavy rainfall triggered two lahars in May, five in June, four in August, and a further ten in September (Global Volcanism Program, 2016b, 2017). Irregular, large, explosions occasionally accompanied by PDCs continued through July, August, and into September.

In October 2016, a new phase of activity was observed, characterized by the extrusion of lava into the summit crater of El Caliente (Figure 2I). By February 2017, this new lava extrusion had filled over 60% of the summit crater. By March 2017, the extrusion had grown large enough that lava could overflow the vent rim and occasional block-and-ash flows descended tens of meters down the flanks of El Caliente. Concurrently, the number of low- to moderate-energy explosions from the El Caliente was reported to increase gradually, reaching up to 35 events per day in May 2017 (Global Volcanism Program, 2017). No large vulcanian explosions were reported during this phase.

An overview of seismic activity between November 2014 and May 2017 is provided by the network-averaged Real-Time Seismic Amplitude Measurement (henceforth referred to as the Network RSAM) shown in Figure 4. RSAM is a continuous measurement of the seismic intensity recorded at a station and was developed to quickly assess volcanic activity (Endo and Murray, 1991). As no station operated continuously throughout the whole study period, it was necessary to construct a Network RSAM, which uses data from multiple stations across the network. (A detailed description of how Network RSAM was generated is provided in section 1.1 of the Supplementary Material). Network RSAM is generally low throughout our entire period of study, although frequently punctuated by large spikes in amplitude (Figure 4A). The size and frequency of these spikes increase after July 2015, the largest occurring in March 2016. Most of these spikes are associated with explosive activity at Santiaguito, with some produced by tectonic earthquakes within 800 km of the volcano (M6+, marked by red triangles in Figure 4A), or lahars in the region.

To follow trends in eruptive activity during our study period, we have automatically tracked the rate of explosive activity at Santiaguito using the seismic and infrasound datasets. Explosive activity at Santiaguito has previously been observed to frequently occur with a pulsatory nature, with multiple distinct explosions occurring within a relatively short interval of time (<30 s spacing; Johnson et al., 2014; Scharff et al., 2014). The distinct explosion pulses may erupt from one or more different fractures across the surface of the active El Caliente vent (Jones and Johnson, 2011; Scharff et al., 2014). Here we define a single “explosive event” as that which includes at least one explosive pulse within a short time interval (<120 s). Seismic waveforms from each event were detected using an envelope matching algorithm and cross-referenced with acoustic triggers selected via a waveform characterization algorithm (Bueno et al., preparation, VINEDA—Volcanic Infrasound Explosions Detector Algorithm). The algorithm uses infrasound waveform shape, amplitude and frequency content to search for explosion waveforms and includes noise reduction techniques to amplify signals of low signal-to-noise ratio.

To quantify the changes in relative explosivity during our period of study, we have estimated the seismic energy produced during each detected event. We adopt an approach that assumes seismic velocity waveforms are representative of the kinetic energy density at individual station locations around the volcano (Johnson and Aster, 2005) (A detailed description of the approach and equation used is provided in section 1.2 of the Supplementary Material). This approach includes a number of generalizations, such as assuming a homogenous half-space, and a fixed P-wave velocity throughout the period of study. However, this approach allows us to quickly assess the relative explosivity of individual events over a large time series. Acoustic energy for the explosions may be calculated from the infrasound dataset, but the acoustic dataset is relatively incomplete and more work is needed to constrain the effects of topography and variable atmospheric conditions.

In total, 6,101 explosive events were detected between November 2014 and May 2017, with large variations in the number of events per day (Figure 4B). In December 2014 and during the first half of 2015 (Phase 1), explosions occurred at high rates (>20 events per day) and relatively low energies, similar to activity reported in previous studies and reports (e.g., Johnson et al., 2014). However, it is clear that the daily rate of explosive events fluctuates about a generally decreasing trend through the latter half of Phase 1 and into Phase 2. This indicates that the transition between Phase 1 and 2 was gradual instead of sudden, as might be inferred from activity reports (section 3). Event rates between mid-2015 and the end of September 2016 (Phase 2) consistently remained at low levels, with <10 events per day. The most energetic explosions during this phase occurred during March to May of 2016 (Figure 4B), which agrees with the activity reported at that time (section 3.3). In late 2016, phase 3 begins with a 2-month long period of increased explosion rate, which coincided with the beginning of effusive activity (section 3.4). Explosion energies during this phase stay relatively low with a few events of relatively large seismic energy (Figure 4B). We note here that the explosion rates characterized using waveform picking in late 2016 and into 2017 falls below the explosion rates presented in activity reports (section 3.4). This may be due to our definition of an “explosive event”, low signal-to-noise ratios or data dropouts due to technical issues. Therefore, we acknowledge that this dataset likely underrepresents the true number of low-energy explosions that occurred during our period of study. Nevertheless, the results plotted in Figure 4B are a good indicator of the changes in activity taking place at the volcano.

Phase 1 was characterized by regular gas-and-ash plumes at intervals of 0.5–1 h (Figure 4B). This behavior had been observed at Santiaguito since 1975 (Rose, 1987) and has been well-documented and analyzed through multiple field studies and methods (Bluth and Rose, 2004; Johnson et al., 2004, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2014; Sahetapy-Engel et al., 2008; Yamamoto et al., 2008; Johnson and Lees, 2010; Sanderson et al., 2010; Holland et al., 2011; Scharff et al., 2014; Lavallée et al., 2015; De Angelis et al., 2016). A typical example of the seismic waveform generated by explosions of this magnitude is presented in Figure 5, along with a thermal image of the same event. The seismic waveform shares characteristics with those previously described at Santiaguito (e.g., Johnson et al., 2008), with peak frequencies concentrated below 5 Hz (Figure 5B). Analysis of acoustic and thermal data recorded during a similar explosion on 30th November 2014 finds that these events contain only minor fractions of ash, therefore little magma fragmentation is taking place in the conduit (De Angelis et al., 2016).

In 2012, the regular low-energy explosions were observed to coincide with ~26-min inflation-deflation deformation cycles of the volcanic edifice, with peak inflation commonly culminating in an outgassing event or an explosion (Johnson et al., 2014; Lavallée et al., 2015). We tested whether the eruptive activity during the first few months of our study was similar to that reported by Johnson et al. (2014). Radial tilt can be derived from broadband seismic data by a magnification of the low-pass filtered integral of the displacement time-series (De Angelis and Bodin, 2012). Here, we used data recorded on 1st December 2014 by one of the closest stations, LB04 (Figures 1, 6B), located 500 m from the eruptive vent. The calculated radial tilt (Figure 6A) displays similar cyclic deformation characteristics to those observed in 2012 at the same location (Figures 6C,D; Johnson et al., 2014), but with a periodicity of 30–90 min. The most pronounced inflation phase commonly culminated with explosions (marked by more pronounced peaks in Figure 6B), whereas smaller inflation phases resulted in outgassing events (Figures 6A,B). Our observations suggest that activity observed until June 2015 was a continuation of the eruptive activity that had been characteristic of El Caliente since 1975.

Eruptive activity during Phase 2 (July 2015 to September 2016) at Santiaguito was defined by the irregular occurrence of large explosions, producing ash plumes up to 7 km a.s.l. The most intense eruptions were reported in the first half of 2016, between February and May (Figure 2D, section 3.3). This series of large explosions caused the excavation of the eruptive vent at the Caliente dome (Figure 2H). The explosions in early February 2016 generated powerful blast waves that were heard up to 25 km away from the vent, resulted in minor damage to nearby buildings, including shattered windows (section 3.3), and were recorded by the acoustic microphones deployed around the volcano (Figure 7).

Blast waves (a.k.a. shock waves) are generated by the supersonic release of pressure from a confined small volume (Needham, 2010). Blast waves generated during volcanic explosions are often observed visually but are rarely seen in the acoustic record (Marchetti et al., 2013). The acoustic waveforms generated during such events are characterized by the sharp compressive onset immediately followed by a longer-lasting rarefaction wave of smaller amplitude (Needham, 2010), a sequence well-defined by the Friedlander equation (section 1.3 in Supplementary Material; Marchetti et al., 2013). Indeed, the acoustic waveforms recorded during the large explosions in early February 2016 are well-approximated by the Friedlander equation (Figure 7). This represents the first such direct geophysical measurement of blast waves at Santiaguito dome complex (to our knowledge).

PDCs were often reported on the flanks of Santiaguito during the period of heightened explosive activity of Phase 2. Large explosions were frequently accompanied by one or multiple PDCs descending the SW, S or SE flanks of the El Caliente dome with run-out distances of up to 3 km. No significant PDC was reported without an accompanying explosion. Most PDCs resulted from partial collapse of the eruptive column during explosive events. One PDC on 8th March 2016 was reported as caused by an additional collapse of part of the El Caliente dome, triggered by a moderate explosion (Global Volcanism Program, 2016b). It remains unconfirmed that several PDCs could have been caused by the excavation of the El Caliente vent during large explosive activity (section 3.3, Figure 2H).

Multiple PDC events were recorded in our dataset during our period of study. A seismic waveform for a PDC observed on 19th June 2016 is plotted in Figure 8C. This event was reported by the Santiaguito Volcano Observatory (OVSAN) and the accompanying explosion produced a plume up to a height of 5 km a.s.l. (Global Volcanism Program, 2016a). The PDC waveform has a duration of only a few minutes, consistent with a relatively short run-out distance down the south or south-western flanks of El Caliente.

Deposits from PDCs and explosions since May 2014 have provided a large supply of sediment to the fluvial systems around Santiaguito. Mobilization of the volcanic material in the annual rainy season triggers lahars and aggradation. Lahar activity typically impacts a fluvial system extending as much as 60 km SW from Santiaguito to the Pacific coast of Guatemala, a heavily populated and farmed zone (Harris et al., 2006). Here we focus on the largest lahars that occurred during our period of analysis, particularly those reported by INSIVUMEH and the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network, published on the Global Volcanism Program website (volcano.si.edu). Smaller, unreported lahars will be difficult to distinguish from PDCs without additional information, since both types of events share similar frequency content and amplitudes (e.g., Figure 8; Huang et al., 2007).

Between November 2014 and May 2017, at least 16 major lahars were observed and reported descending the barrancas (steep-sided valleys) on the south-western flank of Santiaguito. In the seismic record, these events were characterized by emergent waveforms with durations of up to 1 h (Figure 8A). The energy in the lahar signals was broadly distributed below 25 Hz, but the majority was concentrated below 10 Hz (Figure 8B). Six major barrancas lie between stations LB01 and LS04 (Figure 1), and it is important to know which of these barrancas the lahars are descending so that timely and correct warnings can be released to the public. However, it is difficult to assess within which of these the lahars traveled based on the seismic and acoustic data presented here.

Rockfall were frequently recorded throughout our period of study. Three sources of rockfall were identified around Santiaguito during field campaigns. The first, and the source of a clear majority of rockfalls in our dataset, was the unstable scarp formed on the southwestern flank of Santa Maria volcano during the 1902 eruption (Williams and Self, 1983). Rockfalls were also observed along the flanks of the El Caliente (Figure 9, Movie S1) and La Mitad lava domes, an indication of their instability. Rockfalls originated on the southwestern flank of Santa Maria could be easily identified by their seismic amplitude distribution across the network (larger amplitude waveforms were recorded at station LS06 for rockfalls from the unstable scarp) and by visual observations in the field. On inspection of the seismic data, the number of rockfalls inferred to have originated from the lava domes showed no obvious correlation with the number and energy of explosive events during the study period. Small and infrequent rockfalls from the front and flank of the 2014 lava flow were also witnessed but rarely recorded.

Volcano-tectonic (VT) earthquakes are characterized by sharp, mostly impulsive onsets of P- and S-waves with broad spectra up to 15 Hz (Lahr et al., 1994). They share similarities with tectonic earthquakes, but are instead interpreted as the result of stress perturbation due to magmatic intrusion (e.g., Sigmundsson et al., 2015) or by hydrothermal fluids expelled from a magmatic body (e.g., Hill, 1996). Rather than mainshock-aftershock sequences that define major tectonic earthquakes, VTs often occur as intense swarms of earthquakes located beneath or near a volcano. Here, we report the first evidence of VT swarm activity recorded at Santiaguito volcano (to our knowledge).

At least one VT swarm was detected during mid-2016. Figure 10 shows seismic data for the swarm recorded on the 24th July 2016 which started after 00:00 (UTC) and continued for a total of 11 h. During that time, 275 VT earthquakes were recorded at station LB03. The average repose interval between individual earthquakes throughout the swarm decreased from 600 to 120 s. Concurrently, their amplitudes slowly increased through the swarm. Waveform correlation analysis of the events suggests there is very little degree of repetitiveness throughout the swarm, suggesting no VTs repeatedly occurred in the same location. The swarm ended concurrently with a relatively minor explosion, although it is unclear if the two events are related. VT events continued to be recorded until the end of July, with a few events seen in August. However, VT events were only discernible in data recorded at LB03 which had many data gaps during this period so it is difficult to assess the total number of events occurred.

Long-period (LP) seismicity are transient signals characterized by emergent P-waves and Rayleigh waves with a lack of distinct S-waves, dominated by frequencies in the 0.5–5 Hz range (Chouet, 1996). LP seismicity are commonly observed at volcanic systems all around the globe and are attributed to various mechanisms such as the resonance of fluid-filled cavities (e.g., Chouet, 1996), slow-rupture failure in volcanic material (e.g., Lamb et al., 2015), or magma failure (e.g., Neuberg et al., 2006). At Santiaguito, seismic waveforms of LP frequencies have been observed during explosions and were attributed to an abrupt mass shift of solidified or degassed magma (Johnson et al., 2008). Indeed, we have observed similar LP frequencies during explosions in the dataset described here (section 4.2, Figure 5).

More notable for Santiaguito is the apparent absence of LP seismic events prior to explosive events. Swarms of LP events have been frequently observed before major explosive events at volcanoes and have been attributed to pressurization beneath an impermeable cap (e.g., Chouet, 1996) or brittle fracturing of ascending magma (e.g., Varley et al., 2010). It appears the conditions to generate LP seismicity prior to explosions were not present at Santiaguito, or the earthquakes could not be distinguishable above the background noise levels.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.