Stability analysis of rock slopes using the interface contact model and strength reduction method

1 Introduction

Rock slope stability is generally governed by the presence of discontinuities which developed in rocks. The combination of these discontinuities may result in a set of removable key blocks that significantly decrease the overall stability of slopes. It is vital to develop an effective method for evaluating the stability of key blocks for safe rock slope excavation and construction.

Extensive research studies have been conducted to investigate the stability of rock slopes. Goodman and Shi (1985) proposed the block theory to analyze the stability of the rock wedge, and it has been widely adopted in engineering because of its simplicity of concept. Chen (2004) developed a theoretical method for assessing the stability of the rock wedge based on limit equilibrium analysis. Ma et al. (2019) explored the applicability of the block theory to the wedge probability analysis by considering the variabilities of the geometric and rock properties of blocks. Deng (2021) established a spatial model of rock slopes based on the characteristics of discontinuities and slope surfaces. However, these block theory-based methods have some limitations for a general rock block formed by multiple discontinuities. The factor of safety and failure modes can be inaccurately estimated when these methods are adopted for the stability of rock blocks formed by multiple structural planes. Jiang and Zhou (2017) proposed a rigorous solution based on the limit equilibrium method (LEM) and kinematic analysis for the stability of polyhedral rock blocks formed by multiple discontinuities. Nevertheless, when analyzing the stability of a rock block, LEM does not completely take into account the shear forces acting on the sliding surfaces of either side of the rock block.

Zienkiewicz et al. (1975) first applied the strength reduction method (SRM) to evaluate the slope stability. Since then, some researchers have employed the SRM with finite element methods (FEMs) and finite difference methods (FDMs) to analyze the stability of slopes. The factor of safety (FS) is comparable with the result from LEM as found by Ugai and Leshchinsky (1995), Griffiths and Lane (1999), Zheng et al. (2007), and Griffiths and Marquez (2007). In comparison to the LEM, the SRM has a number of advantages including the abilities to model complex geometric and boundary conditions, the nonlinear behavior of rocks and soils, and the progressive collapse of slopes (Wei et al., 2009; Xi et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2019). It is noted, however, most of the applications are for soil slopes. The applications of SRM to rock slopes are rare with a few exceptions including Jiang et al. (2015) and Lu et al. (2020). The existing rock slope applications of SRM involve modeling the discontinuities based on solid elements neglecting the significant disparity in the physical and mechanical characteristics of intact rocks and discontinuities. In addition, the failure criterion of the soil slope is directly applied to the rock slope despite the distinction failure mode of soil slopes and rock slopes.

In this paper, an FDM interface contact model developed for rock slopes is first introduced. The proposed model is capable of modelling discontinuities by interface contact elements, and it is reasonable considering the contribution of multiple discontinuities. The shear reduction approach is adopted to assess the stability of rock slopes. Then, the failure criterion of rock slopes is discussed. To validate the reliability of the proposed method, four typical examples are analyzed by FlAC^3D. The effects of the stiffness of interfaces, mesh size, and failure criteria on the FS and computation time are also investigated. Moreover, the proposed method is applied in the stability analysis of the right dam abutment of the Yinpan Hydropower Station in Wulong County, Chongqing Province, China. The results show that the proposed method is effective in assessing multiple structural planes.

2 Methodology

2.1 Constitutive relation of the interface contact model

Advanced numerical models provide two approaches for modelling rock discontinuities: zero-thickness interface contact elements to facilitate the transmission of both shear and normal stress from the rock to the discontinuity structure planes and solid elements with finite depth. The interface contact elements in FlAC^3D with zero thickness are used to model the discontinuities in rock slopes.

Figure 1 illustrates the constitutive model of the interface elements. The Coulomb sliding law (Itasca 2000) is used to characterize the shear strength of the interface, which is represented by a linear Coulomb shear-strength criterion, normal and shear stiffnesses, tensile and shear bond strengths, and a dilation angle. The dilation angle is assumed to be zero in this paper, and a non-associate flow rule is used, which limits the shear force acting at an interface node and causes an increase in effective normal force on the target face after the shear-strength limit is reached.

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 1. Components of the bonded interface constitutive model.

The absolute normal penetration and the relative shear velocity of every interface node and its corresponding target face are determined at every time step. The interface constitutive model utilizes these values to generate a normal force and a shear-force vector. They are calculated at time $t+\Delta t$ as follows:

$\left\{\begin{array}{l}{F}_n^{\left(t+\Delta t\right)}=k_n{u}_{n}A+{\sigma }_{n}A,\\ F_{si}^{\left(t+\Delta t\right)}=F_{si}^t+k_n\Delta u_{si}^{\left(t+\Delta t/2\right)}A+{\sigma }_{si}A,\end{array}\right.(1)$

where $F_n^{\left(t+\Delta t\right)}$ and $F_{si}^{\left(t+\Delta t\right)}$ are the normal force and shear force at time $t+\Delta t$, respectively; $k_n$ and $k_s$ denote the normal and shear stiffnesses, respectively; $u_n$ is the absolute normal penetration of the interface node into the target face; ${\Delta u}_{si}$ is the incremental relative shear displacement; ${\sigma }_n$ is the additional normal stress that is generated as a result of interface stress initialization; ${\sigma }_{si}$ is the extra shear stress that results from the interface stress initialization; and A is an area that is associated with the node in the contact model.

The Coulomb shear-strength criterion restricts the magnitude of the shear force according to a specific equation.

$F_{s\max }=cA+\tan \phi \left(F_n-pA\right),(2)$

where $F_{s\max }$ is the maximum shear force, c is the cohesion along the interface, $\phi$ is the friction angle of the interface surface, and p is the pore pressure (interpolated from the target face). The sliding along the interface shall occur when the criterion $\left|F_s\right|\ge F_{s\max }$ is fulfilled. The shear force should be adjusted to the maximum shear stress ($\left|F_s\right|=F_{s\max }$), and the direction remains unchanged.

If either the shear stress is greater than the shear strength or the tensile effective normal stress is more than the normal strength, the bond will be broken. Then the normal force and shear force turn to be zero. The interface elements can well simulate the deformation and stress characteristics of the discontinuous plane.

The intercalation capacity of two contact surfaces is determined by normal stiffness $k_n$ and shear stiffness $k_s$. The analysis is significantly influenced by the interface shear and normal stiffnesses. The bigger the stiffness, the more difficult it is to penetrate between two contact surfaces. Utilizing stiffnesses of a high magnitude will result in a slow convergence rate of the solution (Rosso, 1976; Bandis et al., 1983). The equivalent stiffness proposed by Fossum (1985) for a zone in the normal direction can be determined as follows:

$k_e=\frac{K+4G/3}{\Delta z_{\min }},(3)$

where $k_e$ is the equivalent stiffness; $K$ and $G$ are the bulk and shear moduli, respectively; and $\Delta z_{\min }$ is the smallest width in the normal direction of an adjoining zone. To join two sub-grids, the interface must be utilized with the higher shear and normal stiffnesses than the equivalent stiffness ($k_s$ and $k_n$ higher than $k_e$) to prevent any movement.

2.2 Strength reduction method

The strength reduction finite difference method is proposed to predict the stability of a rock slope. The SRM is intended to reduce the cohesion $c_j$ and internal friction angle $\tan {\varphi }_j$ of rock discontinuities progressively until the critical failure state, as described in the next section, is reached. The shear strength parameters $c_j^{\prime }$ and ${\varphi }_j^{\prime }$, which have been factored, are represented by

$c_j^{\prime }=\frac{c_j}{SRF},(4)$

${\varphi }_j^{\prime }=\arctan \left(\frac{\tan {\varphi }_j}{SRF}\right),(5)$

where SRF is the strength reduction factor. When the critical state is determined, the factor of the safety of the rock slope is the same as SRF and $FS=SRF$. Therefore, the failure criteria directly influence the value of $FS$.

2.3 Failure criteria in strength reduction for rock slopes

The failure criteria for evaluating if a soil slope has reached its critical state have been widely discussed. The most widely used failure criteria for soil slopes are presented as follows.

1) Strain and displacement mutation of specific points.

2) The non-convergence of a numeral model computation.

3) Plastic shear strain runs through the slope.

Using the displacement mutation of specific points as failure criteria is not objective enough due to specific points’ selection and the determination of whether the displacement mutation of these points depends on subjective judgment. The convergence speed of a numeral model is influenced by grid partitioning. The occurrence of a plastic zone stretching from the bottom to the top of a slope does not necessarily signify slope failure.

Research studies on the failure criteria of rock slopes are rare. Most of the researchers adopted failure criteria for soil slopes to obtain the $FS$ of rock slopes. The assessment of $FS$ based on soil slope failure criteria could give a misleading conclusion regarding the rock slope stability. It is assumed that the critical state is reached when all the nodes of interface contact elements are either sliding or opening, as the rock slope stability is generally governed by multiple structural planes. The new failure criteria are more effective in depicting the failure behavior of a rock mass.

3 Examples

The stability assessment of a rock slope that includes either a wedge formed by two discontinuities or a pentahedron formed by three discontinuities is of great interest in rock slope engineering. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, four rock slope examples are analyzed by the traditional method and proposed method. The analysis is carried out using the high-performance laptop with Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-10875H CPU @ 2.30 GHz. The movable block in examples 1 and 2 is formed by two discontinuities, while that in examples 3 and 4 is formed by three discontinuities.

1) Example 1: Symmetrical wedge

The first problem deals with a symmetrical wedge with two discontinuities, as illustrated in Figure 2. The rock slope surface of this wedge has an inclination of 45° with a dip direction of 185°, while the upper surface of slope dips has an inclination of 10° with a dip direction of 180°. The wedge has a height of 64.89 m and is intersected by two discontinuities (i.e., ADC and ABC). Details of discontinuities for geometry and geotechnical properties are given in Table 1. The unit weight is $\gamma =26{\mathrm{k}\mathrm{N}/\mathrm{m}}^3$, the bulk modulus is $K=10\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$, and the elastic modulus is $G=3\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$. The discontinuities are modelled by interface contact elements comprising 456 nodes and 818 elements. The obtained rock mass consisted of 1161 nodes and 4508 elements. The tetrahedron mesh of the symmetrical wedge is shown in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 2. Three-dimensional mesh discretization for rock slopes with a symmetrical wedge. (A) Symmetrical wedge (B) Rock slope.

TABLE 1

TABLE 1. Geometrical and material parameters of example 1.

Through the procedure of shear strength reduction on the discontinuities ADC and ABC, the FS can be determined. When SRF attains 1.316, all the nodes of interface contact elements are either sliding or opening and the limit failure state is reached. For this example, the FS is 1.316. For comparison, the block theory is also undertaken to evaluate the stability of this example. According to the principles of the block theory, the movable block is determined to be sliding along the juncture where two sliding surfaces intersect. The block theory derived closed-form equations for this failure mode to calculate the FS. The FS has an exact value of 1.293. It was found that FS estimated by the proposed method is consistent with the block theory, which is proved to be an accurate method for evaluating stability of symmetrical wedges. Thus, the rationality and effectiveness of the proposed method have been demonstrated.

2) Example 2: Asymmetrical wedge

Example 2 consists of an asymmetrical wedge with two discontinuities ADC and ABC. The shear strength and geometric features of the example are provided in Table 2. In this case, the rock unit weight is $\gamma =26{\mathrm{k}\mathrm{N}/\mathrm{m}}^3$, the bulk modulus is $K=10\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$, and the elastic modulus is $G=3\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$. FLAC^3D is employed to develop a numerical model of the rock slope. Figure 3 shows the tetrahedron mesh of the asymmetrical wedge with 256 nodes and 451 interface contact elements The obtained rock mass consisted of 632 nodes and 2350 elements. Both the proposed method and block theory-based method are employed to evaluate the stability of this example. The FS obtained by the proposed method is 1.644, which is very close to the result (FS=1.640) estimated by the block theory. The effectiveness of the proposed method is further confirmed.

TABLE 2

TABLE 2. Geometrical and material parameters of example 2.

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 3. Three-dimensional mesh discretization for the asymmetrical wedge.

Example 3 is a rock slope with a movable block formed by three discontinuity surfaces (ABED, ACFD, and ABC) as shown in Figure 3A. In this case, the volume of the block is 6076 m³. The area of structural surfaces ABED, ACFD, and ABC is 573 m², 878 m², and 81 m², respectively. The strengths and orientations of the three discontinuities are given in Table 3. The rock unit weight is $\gamma =26{\mathrm{k}\mathrm{N}/\mathrm{m}}^3$, the bulk modulus is $K=10\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$, and the elastic modulus is $G=3\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$. Discontinuities are simulated using interface contact elements within the theoretical framework of the finite difference method. The tetrahedron mesh of the rock block is shown in Figure 3B. The mesh of the interface comprised 69 nodes and 106 elements.

TABLE 3

TABLE 3. Geometrical and material parameters of example 3.

The FS for this example is obtained by the proposed method and block theory. When SRM is equal to 2.875, as shown in Figure 4, all the nodes of interface contact elements are either sliding or opening and the limit failure state is reached. For this problem, the FS is 2.875. The sliding mode of this example determined by the block theory is the single plane sliding (along ABC). In the estimation, the block theory only considers the normal and shear stresses of the sliding surface, ignoring the influence of other discontinuities. The FS estimated by the block theory is 1.156. It is shown that the block theory method seriously underestimates the rock slope’s stability.

FIGURE 4

FIGURE 4. Three-dimensional model for example 3 (A) Geometry of a typical moveable block forming by three discontinuities. (B) Vertical view of the movable block.

To investigate the influence of discontinuities ABED and ACFD on the slope stability assessment, the $c$ of these two planes is varied in the range of 0–150 kPa, while all other parameters remain unchanged as described in this section. For comparison, the proposed method and block theory method are carried out to estimate FS. The obtained results from both methods pertaining to $c$ of discontinuities ABED and ACFD are demonstrated in Figure 5. It is evident that discontinuities ABED and ACFD have significant impact on the slope stability. The contribution of these structural planes is omitted by the block theory which will result in the underestimation of FS. The proposed method which considers the shear strength on all discontinuities would yield accurate results for rock slopes controlled by three discontinuities.

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 5. Effect of the cohesion of discontinuities ABED and ACFD on slope stability analysis.

Figure 6 shows an example of a rock slope with three discontinuities developed in the rock mass. Figure 6A exhibits a tetrahedron mesh of the pentahedron. The mesh of the interface comprised 116 nodes and 172 elements. The shear strength characteristics and geometry of discontinuities are listed in Table 4. In this case, the potentially unstable block formed by the spatial intersection of discontinuities ABED, ACFD, and ABC has a volume of 10,870 m³. The area of structural surfaces ABED, ACFD, and ABC is 683 m², 580 m², and 764 m², respectively.

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 6. Three-dimensional model for example 4. (A) Geometry of a typical movable block forming by three discontinuities. (B) Vertical view of the movable block.

TABLE 4

TABLE 4. Geometrical and material parameters of example 4.

For comparison and validation, the block theory, the three-dimensional LEM implemented using 3D slope software, and the proposed method are adopted to analyze the stability of the example rock slope. The FS of 1.28 obtained by the proposed method shows good agreement with that predicted by LEM (FS=1.26). Within the framework of the block theory, it is essential to first evaluate the failure mode. The example slope sliding direction is congruent with the junction of the two failure planes (ABED and ACFD) on the horizontal projection. The FS obtained from the block theory only considers normal and shear stresses of the two sliding surfaces, ignoring the influence of the tension crack. The FS is found to be 2.01, which overestimated the stability of the slope.

The effect of the tension crack (i.e., discontinuity ABC) on the stability of the example slope has been discussed by varying the dip angle. As depicted in Figure 7, when the tension crack dip angle is 90°, the difference in the FS obtained by the proposed method, block theory, and LEM is negligible. This indicates that the tension crack barely influences the analysis of slope when the dip angle is equal to 90°. It can also be found from Figure 7 that the FS calculated by the block theory increases slightly with the increasing tension crack dip angle. The varied volume of movable blocks and areas of sliding surfaces leads to minor difference in FS for different dip angles. The difference between the proposed method and block theory is increased with the decreasing tension crack dip angle. When the dip angle is equal to 45°, the relative difference in FS between the proposed method and block theory is 36.5%. The block theory can lead to inaccurate outcomes due to ignoring the tension crack of unstable slopes, thus overestimating the stability of slopes. The proposed method and LEM can consider the roles of all the structural planes in the stability problem, which provides a new and effective way of solving the stability problem of movable blocks. The FS calculated by these two methods is very close. To accurately assess the stability of rock slopes, the shear strength of all discontinuities should be considered, and their unfavorable effects on the rock stability assessment should also be reflected for calculating the FS.

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 7. Effect of the dip angle of discontinuity ABC on slope stability analysis.

4 Discussion

4.1 Effects of shear and normal stiffnesses on slope stability analysis

The discontinuities developed in rocks are simulated by interface contact elements. To analyze the impact of normal and shear stiffnesses on the stability of a slope, the symmetrical wedge and asymmetrical wedge are adopted and analyzed. The bulk and shear moduli of the rock mass were set at $K=10\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$ and $G=3\mathrm{G}\mathrm{P}\mathrm{a}$, respectively, while $k_s$ and $k_n$ varied in the range of $k_e\sim 100k_e$. The effects of stiffness on the FS and time steps for estimating the stability of the wedges are shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5

TABLE 5. Effects of $k_s,k_n$ on the FS and computation time for wedges.

For the illustrative examples, although the values of stiffnesses are different, the values of FS are very similar. If normal stiffness $k_s$ and shear stiffness $k_n$ of interface contact elements are less than ten times that of $k_e$ of adjacent zones, these stiffnesses have no influence on the estimation of FS and computational efficiency. If the ratio between $k_s$ and $k_e$ is much more than ten, the computational cost will be significantly increased. Careful consideration should be given to improve computational efficiency. It is recommended that the stiffness of a zone ($k_s$; $k_n$) should be set to ten times the stiffness of the stiffest adjacent zone.

4.2 Effects of element size on slope stability analysis

To discuss the effects of size of the interface contact element on the estimation of rock slope stability, various element sizes are utilized in the analysis. To discretize symmetrical and asymmetrical wedges, four different element sizes are employed. $k_s$ and $k_n$ of these two examples are set to ten times that of $k_e$. The results of FS corresponding to different element sizes are presented in Table 6. The estimation of FS appears to remain unchanged regardless of the size of the element. The proposed method can reach the high level of precision even when the large element size is adopted. As the number of elements increases, the computational cost also increases. To maximize efficiency, it is advisable to use a small number of elements for the proposed method.

TABLE 6

TABLE 6. Effects of element size of interface contact elements on the FS.

4.3 Effects of failure criteria on slope stability analysis

To investigate the effects of different criteria on the rock slope stability, both displacement mutation criterion and the proposed failure criterion (all the nodes of interface contact elements are either sliding or opening) are used to obtain the FS of the rock slope for examples 1 and 2. The displacements of four points (A, B, C, and D) are recorded with the rise in SRF as illustrated in Figure 8. The displacements of all selected points increased with the rise in SRF. The analytical FS (estimated by the block theory) of example 1 is 1.293. The displacement mutation phenomenon has not been easily observed with the increasing strength reduction. When the shear strength reduction method is applied with the displacement mutation as the slope failure criteria, the estimation of FS involved subjectivity. As shown in Figure 9, the number of failed nodes is increased with the increasing SRF. The turning points are found when SRF=1.316 of example 1. All the nodes of interface contact elements are either sliding or opening when SRF=1.316. Thus, FS is 1.316 according to the failure criteria. The turning points of example 2 can also be obtained when SRF=1.644. The results show that the FS estimated in the strength reduction method by the new failure criteria has good agreement with the block theory. The interface element node failure criteria are recommended for examining the stability of rock slopes because of its objectivity and clear concept.

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 8. Displacement of specific points with the rise in the strength reduction factor. (A) Example 1 (B) Example 2.

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 9. Percentage of failure nodes with the increase in the strength reduction factor. (A) Example 1 (B) Example 2.

5 Engineering application

The Yinpan Hydropower Station is situated in Wulong County, Chongqing Province, China, which is 4 km downstream from Jiangkou Town. The Yinpan Hydropower Station, as the 11th cascade development on the main stream of the Wujiang River, is a comprehensive hydro-project designed for electric power generation in combination with navigation. The hydropower station includes the construction of a 653.8-m-long and 80-m-high concrete gravity dam.

The gradient of natural rock slopes on the right bank is about 35°. The rock of the slope is composed of $S_{\mathit{ln}}^1$ shale, O_3w shale, O₂₊₃ limestone, O_1d sandstone, and shale from the top to bottom. Figure 10 depicts the geological plan layer of excavation on the right abutment slope. As indicated in the field geological investigation and geological survey of the right bank, there is a latent large block generated by fault F₁ and bedding fissure II₁5006 that developed in $S_{\mathit{ln}}^1$ shale, as shown in Figure 10. The intersection angle between F₁ and slope strike is about 12°. The altitude of fault F₁ is 110°∠38°. The composition of fault F₁ is muddy intercalation within broken shale. The broken rock has a diameter of 5–15 cm and a general width of .5–3 cm. After excavation, the lower part of fault F₁ exposure led to right abutment slope failure. The altitude of bedding fissure II₁5006 is 272°∠41° whose joint connectivity is 20% consisting of the calcite membrane. According to the engineering geological investigation, the physical and mechanical properties of the dam abutment slope and the shear strength parameters of the slip surfaces are listed in Table 7.

FIGURE 10

FIGURE 10. Plan layout of excavation on the right dam slope.

TABLE 7

TABLE 7. Physical and mechanical parameters of the rock mass for the right dam abutment slope.

A model is built to analyze the FS after excavation based on the geological reveals in the right slope. The numerical model for the right dam abutment slope is presented in Figure 11. The numerical model is composed of 1161 nodes and 4508 elements. The volume of the potential failure block is 21,445 m3. Fault F1 and bedding fissure II₁5006 are simulated by interface contact elements within the theoretical framework of the finite difference method. The mesh of the interface comprised 402 nodes. For the right dam abutment slope, the SRF is 1.04 when all the nodes of interface contact elements are either sliding or opening. Therefore, the FS is 1.04. Figure 12 shows the states of interface nodes with different reduction factors of shear strength. Circles at nodes represent that the interface has slipped in the shear or normal direction. Red circles represent opening contact nodes, and black circles represent sliding contact nodes. Figure 13 represents the plane sliding direction vectors of the right dam abutment slope at a critical state.

FIGURE 11

FIGURE 11. Three-dimensional model for the right dam abutment slope after excavation. (A) Rock block (B) Right dam abutment slope.

FIGURE 12

FIGURE 12. States of interface nodes for the rock block of the right dam slope.

FIGURE 13

FIGURE 13. Sliding direction vectors of the dam slope at the critical state (A) SRF=1.01 (B) SRF=1.04.

The failure mode of right slopes obtained by the block theory is single plane sliding with fault F₁. When considering a potential sliding of the right dam slope along fault F₁, a unique decomposition of forces on the sliding body is induced into a component along the sliding direction and a component perpendicular to the sliding direction. Thus, the FS obtained from the block theory is .72. However, when the block fails, II₁5006 would resist sliding of the movable block and change the sliding direction. Since the block theory method ignores the role of bedding fissure II₁5006, the block theory underestimated the stability of the right dam abutment slope. The proposal method can consider roles of all the structural planes in the stability problem and obtain credible results Figure 13.

6 Conclusion

In order to analyze rock slopes with multiple discontinuities, which can induce ill-advised results by the conventional block theory, this paper proposes a method for estimating the FS of complex blocks, in which the discontinuities are simulated by interface contact elements within the theoretical framework of the finite difference method based on the strength reduction method. The effects of shear and normal stiffnesses, element size of wedges, and failure criteria on the stability analysis were further investigated by the proposal method. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results and discussion of this paper:

1) The validity of the proposed model is demonstrated by some typical examples of wedges. For wedge examples, the FS values calculated by the proposed method are consistent with the traditional method. For the stability analysis of blocks formed by multiple structural planes, the proposed method can consider roles of all the structural planes in the stability problem. Thus, the proposed method provides engineers with a practical method for 3D jointed rock slope stability analysis.

2) The stiffnesses of the interface contact element and element size have no influence on the estimation of FS. However, large values of stiffnesses and small element size will result in low computational efficiency. Therefore, it is of great importance for adopting the suitable stiffnesses of the interface element and element size to improve solution efficiency. The failure criteria of the interface contact node provide a more accurate way to indicate the failure behavior of a rock slope.

3) The proposed method is utilized to assess the stability of the Yinpan Hydropower Station right abutment slope. The traditional block theory method fails to accurately assess the stability of the slope due to its inability to consider the contributions of all the structural planes. However, the proposed method takes into account all the structural planes and produces more reliable results.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

RY: methodology, software, validation, investigation, formal analysis, data curation, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, and visualization. CZ: conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing, visualization, supervision, and project administration. JL: software, validation, and writing—review and editing. XB: software, validation, and writing—review and editing.

Funding

This study was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2021JBM037) and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation project (2022M710341).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors, and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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