Edited by: Jeremiah Grahm Plass-Johnson, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Reviewed by: Kirsty Jenna Venter, Sustainable Seas Trust, South Africa; Helene Denise Marsh, James Cook University Townsville, Australia; Stephanie Ploen, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
*Correspondence: Abigail M. Moore
This article was submitted to Marine Ecosystem Ecology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Marine Science
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
In the Spermonde as in the other main island groups around Sulawesi, seagrass and coral ecosystems are intimately linked ecologically and overlap extensively on the shallow water shelves surrounding most islands. One keystone species living in these shallow waters is the dugong (
In a small island context, seagrass and coral reef ecosystems are generally intimately linked through flows of both energy and matter, as well as biological structure and processes (Unsworth et al.,
The dugong (
Unlike their closest living relatives, the manatees (Trichechidae), which can also feed on freshwater vegetation, dugongs depend almost exclusively on seagrass ecosystems for food (Preen,
From an anthropologic perspective, many cultures have special relations with the dugong. These can be both exploitative and cultural, including rites and rituals associated with dugong hunting and use, arts and crafts, myths and folklore, and even quasi-religious beliefs (Nair et al.,
Based on both ecological and socio-cultural considerations, as outlined above, there is ample evidence that dugongs can play an important role in small island socio-ecological systems. Furthermore, within the Indo-Pacific region, the dugong can arguably be considered as a keystone species in tropical seagrass ecosystems. The biological and ecological characteristics of dugongs make them intrinsically vulnerable to extirpation, i.e., local or regional extinction (Marsh et al.,
The most recent evaluation based on the IUCN Red List criteria (Marsh and Sobtzick,
Within Indonesia, the limited data available at the time were considered sufficient to warrant full protected status for dugongs under law PP No. 7/1999. The dugong is currently one of 20 conservation priority taxa in the 5 year (2014–2019) strategic plan of the Indonesian Ministry for Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF). Estimates of historical and current dugong populations and distribution in Indonesia vary. Marsh et al. (
Despite the relatively large body of literature on dugongs worldwide (evidenced by the 68 pages of references in Marsh et al.,
At a seminar held in Bogor in April 2016
The geographical scope of this research was limited to Central Sulawesi and South Sulawesi Provinces in Indonesia, with special focus on five small island groups: the Togean and Banggai Archipelagos in Central Sulawesi; the Spermonde, Tanakeke and Taka Bone Rate Islands in South Sulawesi Province (Figure
Map of Sulawesi showing provincial boundaries, sea areas and small island groups.
Materials used in this research included published scientific literature, so-called “gray literature” (e.g., project reports submitted to government agencies and non-government organizations, internal research reports), electronic media (web-pages), and unpublished data collected by the authors through personal observation and Participatory Rural Appraisal methods (DFID-SEA,
Main “gray literature” sources of data on dugongs in Central Sulawesi.
2002 | Togean Islands, Donggala District (Makassar Straits) | Multi-disciplinary study on coastal resources and livelihoods; Included KAP study | YACL ( |
Report by local NGO Yayasan Adi Citra Lestari (YACL) to the Central Sulawesi Province Regional Planning Agency |
2003 | Parigi-Moutong District | Multi-disciplinary study on aquaculture potential; Included KAP study | YACL ( |
Report by local NGO YACL to the Central Sulawesi Province Regional Planning Agency |
2006 | Banggai Archipelago | Sea Partnership survey with special focus on the Banggai cardinalfish; Included KAP study, KII | LP3L Talinti ( |
Report by the local NGO LP3L Talinti to the Central Sulawesi Provincial Marine and Fisheries Agency |
2012 | Donggala District (Makassar Straits) | Surveys of existing and proposed marine protected areas; Both included KAP studies, KII | LP2M STPL ( |
Reports by the research and extension unit of the STPL-Palu (LP2M STPL) to the Donggala District Marine and Fisheries Agency |
2013 | LP2M STPL ( |
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2014 | All Districts in Central Sulawesi | Project to draft a marine conservation roadmap for Central Sulawesi Province; Included KII, FGD | KMB Sulteng ( |
Central Sulawesi Sea Partnership report to the Central Sulawesi Provincial Marine and Fisheries Agency |
2014 | Banggai Laut, Banggai and Donggala Districts | Activities related to the initiation of Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAFM) implementation in Indonesia Both included KAP studies, KII, FGD | LC-EAFM STPL-Palu ( |
Project reports by the STPL-Palu EAFM Learning Center (LC-EAFM STPL-Palu) to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Indonesia |
2015 | Banggai and Banggai Laut Districts | LC-EAFM STPL-Palu ( |
||
2015 | All Districts in Central Sulawesi | Protected marine species Survey; Included KAP study, KII, FGD | LP2M STPL-Palu ( |
Report by the STPL-Palu to the Coastal and Marine Resource Management Agency (BPSPL) |
The data collated were not suitable for statistical analysis. Quantitative data (e.g., percentage of respondents in KAP studies) were tabulated. The data were analyzed descriptively and evaluated in the context of dugong conservation, focussing on dugong habitat and populations, as well as cultural importance and exploitation of dugongs.
The data in Table
Summary of data on dugong distribution, habitat, abundance, exploitation, legends, and direct sightings by authors by geographic area.
1 | Direct sightings of Dugongs (alive or freshly killed) by authors | 2001 | 1993 | 2016 | 2016 | ||||
2002 | |||||||||
2 | Last reported sighting based on respondent data | 2015 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2015 | 1993 | 2016 | 2016 |
3 | Reported as once common (by older respondents) | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
4 | Sharp decline in past 50 years | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
5 | Suspected extirpation or biological extinction | Y | Y | N | |||||
6 | Dugong population at high risk of extinction due to human activity | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||
7 | Exploitation for meat (consumption) | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | N | Y | |
8 | Exploitation for sale of body parts (T = tusks; S = skin, O = other) | T,S, O | T,S, O | N | T,S | T,S | O | T | T,S |
9 | Dugong tears as love filtres/remedies | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
10 | Dugong princess ( |
Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
11 | Destructive fishing in coral reefs (CR) and/or seagrass meadows (SG) | CRSG | CRSG | CR N | CR SG | CR SG | CRSG | CR | CR |
12 | Decline in coral reef (CR) and/or seagrass (SG) condition since ≈ 2000 | CR SG | CRSG | CRSG | CR SG | CR SG | CR SG | ||
13 | Decline in reef/seagrass associated fish resources since around 2000 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||
14 | Decline in reef/seagrass associated invertebrate resources in past decade | Y | Y | Y | |||||
15 | Pollution, including domestic waste (plastics, batteries etc.) & sewage | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
16 | National Park with management authority and plan, zonation, etc | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N |
17 | Presence of small sub-national MPA(s), confirmed or proposed | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |||
18 | Dugong population included in national species conservation database | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N |
19 | Dugong conservation initiatives | N | N | N | Y | N | N | Y | N |
20 | Cases of dugongs as pets or as visitor attraction | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | Y | N |
21 | Sources (*for more details see Table |
YACL ( |
Selected data from knowledge, attitude, and perception (KAP) studies by geographical area and year or time period.
1 | Know at least one seagrass ecosystem function | 78% | 73% | 90% | 100% |
2 | Aware of the protected status of dugongs | 0% | 100% | 100% | 100% |
3 | Seen or know of recent dugong capture and exploitation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
4 | Opinion on dugong exploitation (food, sale of body parts, tears) | Considered normal | 57% against | 100% against | 100% against |
5 | Perceived changes in local dugong population | noticeably reduced | drastically reduced | very few left, at some sites think there may be none left | |
6 | Sources (for more details on 1,5 see |
1YACL, |
2Ndobe and Moore, |
3Moore et al., |
5LP2M STPL-Palu, |
1 | Know at least one seagrass ecosystem function | 70% | 100% | 73% | 100% |
2 | Aware of the protected status of dugongs | 0% | 0% | 15% | 100% |
3 | Seen or know of recent dugong capture and exploitation | Yes | Yes (for tears) | Yes | Yes |
4 | Opinion on dugong exploitation (food, sale of body parts, tears) | Considered normal | No opinion | 73% against | 1 respondent in favor |
5 | Perceived changes in local dugong population | Less than before, still quite common | Becoming rare | Becoming hard to find | Very rare, risk of extinction |
6 | Sources (for more details on 1,2,4 see |
1YACL, |
2YACL, |
3 Moore, unpublished data | 4LP2M STPL-Palu, |
1 | Know at least one seagrass ecosystem function | 50% | 100% | 100% | 100% |
2 | Aware of the protected status of dugongs | Very few aware | 100% | 100% | 100% |
3 | Seen or know of recent dugong capture and exploitation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
4 | Opinion on dugong exploitation (food, sale of body parts, tears) | Most consider it normal | Don't agree with it | Majority against | Majority against |
5 | Perceived changes in local dugong population | Few, used to be abundant | Becoming rarer | Becoming rarer | Becoming rarer |
6 | Sources (for more details on 2,4,5,6 see Table |
1 Ndobe et al., |
2 LP3L Talinti, |
3Ndobe, |
5LC-EAFM STPL-Palu, |
Destructive fishing practices in the study areas also included the use of simple “blunt instruments” to break open or overturn corals in search of invertebrates, or to collect the ornamental or food fish stunned by poison fishing. Other fishing practices considered likely to damage/degrade coral reefs and/or seagrass beds included the use of gill nets that catch on corals and seagrasses which are then pulled up with the net. KAP respondents reported that it was not uncommon for seagrasses (mostly
Despite growing awareness of the ban on coral mining, as well as increased enforcement efforts, the most recent data and observations (2015/2016) revealed that this highly destructive extractive practice was still widespread. Coral mining was a major threat at some KAP sites in each area, despite patchy improvements in enforcement and localized efforts to replace corals with other building materials, not an easy task in terms of small island logistic and economic settings. While community members viewed corals as free (personal use), or a source of income (collecting and selling to projects), many local government officials saw the use of local materials (sand and corals) as the only way to stay within central government budgetary constraints, while enabling all parties concerned to make a (legal and/or illegal) profit.
Threats to both coral reefs and seagrass meadows included sedimentation due to degradation of terrestrial ecosystems and in some cases mangroves, as well as land based and marine-based pollution, the former mainly domestic waste and sewage, and the latter mainly from the many vessels of all sizes plying the waters around Sulawesi. Signs of climate change impacts, specifically coral bleaching, have also now been recorded in all the islands and coastal areas covered in this research. In 2010, coral bleaching was observed in Tomini Bay (Muslihuddin et al.,
In addition to widespread defaunation from intensive gleaning observed at most KAP sites, there is some experimental evidence from the Spermonde Islands that trampling during gleaning and other human activities can have a negative effect on seagrasses (Nadiarti, pers. com., 2016), as well as causing mechanical damage to corals. Threats specific to seagrasses include the deliberate cutting or pulling up of seagrasses, mainly
Data on dugong distribution, abundance, and exploitation, as well as community knowledge and perception regarding dugongs and the coastal ecosystems they inhabit, are summarized by geographical area in Table
Six Dugong by-catch and stranding cases in Central and South Sulawesi.
Tolitoli District, Central Sulawesi | September 2016 | Male; body length 168 cm; body circumference 134 cm | Entangled in fishing net; untangled and tied to a stake by a rope around its tail by the fisherman, purpose unknown; tagged and released by authorities; superficial wounds seemed to have occurred during captivity | Sari, |
Donggala District, Central Sulawesi | November 2015 | Female calf, around 1 m body length (see |
Found stranded with an incompletely healed puncture wound; “rescued” by villagers and tied by the tail; mother possibly a hunting victim; released by government officers | Ederyan and Buatan, pers. Com |
Tolitoli District, Central Sulawesi | Around 2006 | Sex unknown; very small, possibly neonate | Entangled in fishing net. Reared in captivity and kept by the fisherman and his wife for 9 years; released by authorities in 2015, at around 2 m in length | Salut, |
Tomini Bay, Central Sulawesi | 2015 | Sex unknown; around 1 m long and 40 kg in weight | Washed up (stranded), very weak and reportedly attacked by schools of small fish; local people attempted to return the calf to the sea, but for a long time it kept returning to shore | Wartabone, |
Tomini Bay, Central Sulawesi | Unknown | Sex unknown; size unknown | Kept captive (tied by the tail and regularly moved to fresh seagrass) for many years as a pet and a source of income (visitor fees); released by the authorities in early 2015; | LP2M STPL-Palu, |
Selayar Island, South Sulawesi | January 2011 | Sex unknown; photographs indicate young calf | Stranded, reportedly with blood-sucking animals attached; initial attempts to return the calf to sea failed; kept tied by the tail by a fisherman; became an (unpaid) attraction and gave rise to fears rooted in local superstitions; eventually released | Syarif, |
Close encounters with a lone dugong (sex unknown) in Palu Bay during coral reef surveys in 2001/2002 were reported in Moore (
In the Taka Bone Rate, two adult (approximately 2 m long) dugongs were seen (separately) during the Nusantara Jaya Expedition, organized under the maritime youth program of the Coordinating Ministry for Marine Affairs. According to local respondents, six dugongs were often seen in the early morning or late afternoon around Jinato Island.
In Tanakeke, a dugong caught in April 2016 was described as a pregnant female approximately 2 m in length. While 2 m is small for an adult (pregnant) female dugong, it is worth noting that many villagers are still more familiar with non-metric measurement systems, especially the “
Strandings and accidental captures of both adult and juvenile dugongs (calves) reported in the press (Table
The KAP data (Table
In Taka Bone Rate, the Jinato Island community (Bugis from Sinjai) admitted that they used to consider dugongs as weird creatures
In Tanakeke (Makassar), there were
In Barranglompo Island, despite the apparent extirpation of dugongs in the Spermonde Islands, dugong bones can still be seen hung up as decorations. A particularly visible case is the bones hung above the door of a local souvenir/craft shop, whose wares are mostly made from mollusc shells (protected and unprotected species). It is likely that this practice is based on similar superstitions to those reported in Nair et al. (
Communities in four island groups had
In several areas, instances of dugongs kept as pets or keeping them captive as an income-generating attraction had been observed or reported (see
Both dugong and dolphin tears were widely believed to have magical properties, in particular as love filtres and to ward off evil spells; in some cases they were also believed to have curative properties. According to respondents, the collection of dugong tears involved the capture and (usually but not always) subsequent release of a dugong (or dolphin), often a juvenile. Although dugongs naturally produce “tears” when out of the water for any length of time (Lanyon et al.,
Threats to dugong in the small islands around Sulawesi comprise most, possibly all, of the four major threat types listed by Marsh et al. (
At a global level, the loss and degradation of seagrass meadows is a significant threat to seagrass-associated species, including dugongs (Hughes et al.,
Our data confirm that the remaining dugongs around Sulawesi are at risk of accidental capture in fishing gear. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)
The situation around Sulawesi as indicated by our data refutes the statement in Hines (
There was substantial evidence that even people who in principle do not support dugong hunting will readily consume dugong meat. One reason given was that the taste of dugong meat is considered particularly delicious, more so than other red meats, such as beef or goat. Hines et al. (
The epicurean aspect is exemplified in the impromptu feast at which the last dugong recorded in the Spermonde was consumed. Of the other two South Sulawesi island groups, the Taka Bone Rate was the only site where dugongs were not eaten, due to local superstitions; in contrast, the Tanakeke Islands were unusual in that meat for human consumption was given as the prime reason for dugong hunting. In some small islands, red meat can be very rare. In Central Sulawesi KAP sites, in particular in the Togean and Banggai Islands, some of the dugong meat was generally consumed while fresh; the remainder was processed into
Dugong teeth, especially the tusks, were the prime motive for dugong hunting according to respondents in Central Sulawesi KAP sites and the main dugong product formerly sold from the Taka Bone Rate Archipelago. Both KAP and KII data indicate that, because of their high market value, dugong tusks are rarely kept by fishermen/hunters. One tusk could fetch over IDR 1 million in 2002 (then worth over US$ 100) in the Togean Islands, equivalent to several months average net income (around US$ 30–40); although actual prices were not given by most respondents, order-of-magnitude responses in more recent surveys in Central Sulawesi ranged from 2 to 6 months income, and dugong tusks were also considered to have a high value in South Sulawesi sites. Albeit somewhat higher in relative terms, our data are still comparable to figures reported from Cambodia by Hines et al. (
Surveys in Bali in 2013 and 2014 (Lee and Nijman,
Lee and Nijman (
The very name of the Order Sirenia is redolent with mythical associations, as recorded in the Odyssey, a justly famed masterpiece of Ancient Greek literature. There is an extensive body of popular and scholarly literature linking mermaid/merman and similar legends around the world to Sirenians (e.g., Waugh,
Most dugong legends recounted by respondents around Sulawesi were similar to those reported from other areas of Indonesia, and more widely in Southeast Asia, in particular in Thailand (Adulyanukosol et al.,
While in many communities
The “lost princess” of the title refers to the apparent extirpation of dugongs in the Spermonde Islands in 1993. However, dugongs may already have been extirpated from Tanakeke, and if current trends continue this title will soon be just as apposite in several other small island groups and along much of the Sulawesi mainland coastline.
With a maximum annual population growth rate of less than 6% (Reynolds and Marshall,
Dugong mating patterns seem to be highly variable. Reviews on this topic by Anderson (
There are currently no data on dugong migrations, home ranges, or other indicators of population connectivity within or between the islands and coastal areas around Sulawesi; therefore, the number of reproductively isolated populations is unknown. Dugong migration patterns vary across their distribution, indicating behavioral plasticity, with apparent migratory ranges from dozens to hundreds of kilometers, and evidence that dugong mothers play a role in passing down knowledge of feeding grounds and migratory behavior to their offspring (Sheppard et al.,
The future of dugongs around Sulawesi is by no means certain, even under optimal conditions in terms of community attitude and political will. In order to evaluate the chances of saving or bringing back the “lost princess” and produce realistic long-term conservation plans, quantitative as well as qualitative data are needed. These include data on remaining dugong demographics, including numbers, age and sex, geographical distribution and ranges. Connectivity between island groups and along coasts and genetic diversity are also important factors, as are habitat condition and trends.
Using traditional survey methods, collecting such data would be a mammoth task. The use of modern technologies such as aerial surveys using manned aircraft (Ponnampalam et al.,
Citizen science programs, such as the Indonesian SiDidi network (Mmaf,
The juvenile dugongs stranded around Sulawesi in recent years were probably very young, at most a few months old. Based on a review of data on dugong neonates in Marsh et al. (
There is clearly a need to review current policies on stranded juvenile dugongs. In view of the critical condition of dugong populations, even one avoidable dugong death is a matter for concern. As stated by Trouwborst (
“
There is little doubt that without change, under current threat levels and trends, the future of most dugong populations around Sulawesi is extremely precarious. The question then arises as to whether we can prevent further extirpations. Is saving our dugongs possible, and if so, would it be a wise use of limited conservation resources? To seek an answer to these questions, we need to look beyond the (lack of) scientific data and the ecological role of dugongs, and take a holistic view of the small island socio-ecological system. Like the dugongs, without change, many of the small islands themselves, and the human communities living on them, are at increasing risk. Changes in human behavior patterns are widely accepted to pass through cognitive (knowledge/understanding) and affective (awareness/valuing/caring) processes before the motoric (action) stage occurs. In this context, dugongs could play a crucial role as “Flagship Species”,
Most ethnic groups in the small islands around Sulawesi, like several peoples across the Asia-Pacific region (e.g., Palau, see Mathews,
To save the remaining dugongs, and eventually bring back the “lost princesses” where extirpated, would not be an easy task. Stopping exploitation is arguably the most urgent priority, but long-term success would also require preventing or reversing degradation of their seagrass habitat. In turn, this would mean looking after the reefs which protect the islands—and thus the habitat of both dugongs and people. To inspire a sea-change, we propose a vision: dugongs as an iconic symbol of the age-old relationship between mankind and the sea; their very existence a measure of success in achieving responsible stewardship and sustainable small island development.
The authors hereby declare that (i) formal ethics approval was not needed for this study as per institutional guidelines and national laws and regulations; (ii) that no research was conducted on dugongs and hence no ethics approval from an Animal Care and Ethics Committee was needed; and that (iii) the component of our research involving human subjects/informants (in this case interview/questionnaire respondents) was conducted in line with good research practices in Indonesia (for non-medical research), and adhered to guidelines including the following principles:
The researcher shall obtain prior informed consent (orally) from the informants. The researcher shall inform the informants that participation in the study is completely voluntary and that they may choose to withdraw at any time. It shall be clearly stated that participation or refusal to participate does not impair any existing relationship between the participants and any other institutions or people involved. It shall be clearly stated (and implemented) that the researcher will avoid including information that may identify the informant in any publication, and that, if at any time informants are concerned about what they were saying being disclosed, they may feel free to stop the interview. In case any questions and/or concerns may arise after the study, contact details of the researcher shall be offered and given to the informants.
AM: contributed data from Central Sulawesi (Togean and Banggai Archipelagos), took part in the research process, lead role in manuscript preparation and writing. RA: contributed data from the Spermonde Islands, took part in the research process, manuscript preparation, writing and editing. YA: contributed data from Tanakeke Islands and Taka Bone Rate Archipelago, took part in the research process and manuscript preparation.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The authors wish to thank all who took part in or otherwise supported the many (unpublished) studies from which we compiled data used in this research. We also thank Muhammad Banda Selamat for assistance with the map (Figure
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at:
1
2Simposium Dugong dan Habitat Lamun. IPB International Convention Center, 20–21 April 2016.
3
4
5Presented at the training session on dugong and seagrass survey methods (
6