Edited by: Rachel Gjelsvik Tiller, SINTEF, Norway
Reviewed by: Tommaso Russo, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy; Thora Tenbrink, Bangor University, United Kingdom
This article was submitted to Marine Fisheries, Aquaculture and Living Resources, a section of the journal Frontiers in Marine Science
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As changes in climate, governance, and organization reshape the dynamics of small-scale fisheries around the globe, the persistence of many local livelihoods appears contingent upon the ability of resource users to respond and adapt. Though significant scholarship has considered the limiting roles of resources and infrastructure, recent research has highlighted the importance of local learning and knowledge. Rather than being driven by forces exogenous to local communities, it is increasingly recognized that adaptation may be limited by perceptions and processes within them. Here, we explore knowledge production and adaptive response within a small-scale fishery in the central Gulf of California following system perturbation. Using mixed methods from the natural and social sciences, we (1) identify local drivers of social-ecological change, (2) document knowledge concerning their causes and consequences across a diverse group of small-scale fishermen, and (3) identify patterns of intracultural agreement and disagreement associated with divergent adaptive response. Results indicate that perceptions of social-ecological change were heterogeneous and that gear ownership and target species diversification were critical factors in determining the cultural models through which fishermen understood and responded to changes in the resource system. Unlike other user groups, owner-operator fishermen pursuing generalist livelihood strategies held consensus beliefs regarding changes to system structure and function and demonstrated increased ability to modify fishing tactics with the best practices for sustainable use. Our findings highlight how local knowledge can be used to assess the proximate impacts of external drivers of change and provide insight into the cultural models influencing
Small-scale fisheries (SSF) employ over 90% of the world’s capture fishers (
In many respects, tropical and semi-tropical SSFs are considered among the systems most vulnerable, threatened and exposed (
Confronted by the urgent need to manage for change, SSF scholars and practitioners have increasingly concerned themselves with the study of adaptation, i.e., the ability of systems to adjust to disturbance, mitigate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, and/or cope with the consequences (
Increasingly, local ecological knowledge (LEK) is recognized as a valuable tool for understanding social-ecological change and the adaptation strategies designed and implemented by local populations (
With rapid social-ecological change impacting coastal communities worldwide, it is important not just to consider the content of LEK, but also to improve our understanding of the processes through which it is produced, shared and used (
According to existing theory, the fishing strategies developed and implemented by small-scale fishers are a product of the constraints and objectives associated with unique social, cultural, and economic contexts (
Although LEK studies are abundant within the SSF literature, few studies have attempted to systematically compare the knowledge of user groups following system perturbation (
The Gulf of California represents Mexico’s primary source of marine resources for foreign and domestic markets and provides food and labor opportunities to approximately 50,000 people (
Mexico traditionally adopted interventionist and protectionist policies to promote the formation of fishing cooperatives (
Though the Gulf of California represents one of the most diverse and productive marine ecosystems in the world (
Field work was conducted in Santa Rosalía (central Gulf of California), a historic hub of the regional jumbo squid fishery, between 2014 and 2016. All research involving human subjects was conducted in accordance with the Human Subjects Research recommendations and guidelines of Stanford University’s Institutional Review Board. The research protocol was approved by the panel for non-medical human subjects. All participating informants gave complete and informed oral consent.
We accessed remote sensing data and environmental indices online through NOAA’s Earth System Research Laboratory (Optimum Interpolation Sea Surface Temperature, September 1981–2017, 0.25°) and CoastWatch (Aqua MODIS Net Primary Productivity, January 2003–2017, 0.0125°) servers and the Copernicus Marine Service (Global Ocean Physics Reanalysis Sea Surface Height, January 1993–2017, 0.083°) and used R programming language (
Due to limitations of the human mind, individuals selectively filter and interpret overwhelming amounts of incoming information (
To assess resource users’ cultural knowledge concerning the causes and consequences of social-ecological change, we combined semi-structured interviews (
When little information is available about a domain of knowledge, or when this domain is particularly complex, two phases of data collection and analysis are undertaken (
During the second phase of research, we used the observations and ideas advanced by informants participating in the first phase of research to create a set of 28 propositions concerning the causes and consequences of social-ecological change observed over the past decade. Following a brief series of questions designed to collect relevant demographic information, participating informants were asked to agree or disagree with each of the 28 propositions. We identified potential respondents (
Survey responses were transformed into a matrix with respondent rows and proposition columns. Missing data (∼2.5% of total responses) in the matrix was filled in with randomly generated 1 and 0 s (
While CCA can be used to determine patterns of intracultural agreement or disagreement in particular domains of knowledge (
Structural breaks analysis of remotely sensed sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface height (SSH), and primary productivity (PP) across coastal fishing grounds (first available data through 2017) determined that each seasonally adjusted time series was optimally partitioned into three segments with two breakpoints. Though differences in time series length complicate efforts to assess and compare initial breakpoints, structural breaks were detected in all three time series between 2012 and 2013 (SST = August, 2012; SSH = September, 2013; PP = December, 2012) (
Remotely sensed oceanographic anomalies observed offshore Santa Rosalía and detected breakpoints (+/– confidence intervals, α = 0.05). Values above zero in each panel represent positive anomalies (i.e., above the long-term average) while values below represent negative anomalies (i.e., below the long-term average). Vertical, dashed lines represent estimated structural breaks within each environmental time series. North-south fishing ranges (Frawley, unpublished data) and the 1000 m depth contour were used to determine the bounds of the sampling polygon.
Analysis of monthly fisheries landings, aggregated by the Santa Rosalía reporting office (
Fisheries landings trends characterizing small-scale fishing activity between 2006 and 2016 in coastal waters offshore Santa Rosalía and adjacent communities, as inferred by monthly landings data. Species/family groupings are displayed in order of their relative contribution to total fisheries value over the same time period.
During the initial phase of research, small-scale fishermen described a number of changes to system structure and function that had impacted their livelihoods over the past decade. As fieldwork progressed, it became evident that the fishery system we observed and attempted to document had changed dramatically in the years preceding our arrival. While we witnessed a decline in the number of active small-scale fishing vessels from 250 during our initial field season in 2014 (during an ephemeral revival of the squid fishery) to ∼30 in 2016, previous accounts (
Common observations of social-ecological change over the past decade as described by small-scale fisher informants (
Salient themes | Common observations |
---|---|
Changing winds and weather patterns | Weaker winds from the North during winter months |
Stronger and more frequent winds during the spring | |
More frequent hurricanes | |
Warmer air temperatures year-round | |
Variation in animal size, behavior, and abundance | Smaller size of traditionally important species |
Schools of baitfish are smaller and less abundant | |
Less predictable timing and duration of seasonal migrations | |
Fish found deeper and further offshore | |
Physical changes to the marine environment | Warmer water temperatures |
Currents stronger and more irregular | |
Decreased water clarity and quality | |
Decreased size and density of seaweed patches | |
Increased tidal range | |
Socioeconomic and cultural change | Must travel further to find productive fishing grounds |
Increased incursions by fishermen from mainland Mexico | |
Diversification of target species | |
Deterioration of traditional ecological knowledge | |
Importance of technological adaptation |
While respondents were largely in agreement that many of these changes could be considered long-term phenomena, the 2009–2010 fishing season appeared to mark a critical turning point in their collective consciousness. Following the landfall of hurricane Jimena, large amounts of fishing equipment and infrastructure were destroyed and the previously abundant jumbo squid resource became scarce. Though fisheries landings were considered cyclical (with good seasons and bad seasons), following 2009–2010 small-scale fishermen reported recurrent difficulty locating and landing squid and other traditionally important species. Some individuals advanced point-source pollution, increased incursions by outside fishermen, and unregulated and/or unsustainable fishing practices as dominant drivers. Others referenced changes in previously persistent weather patterns (i.e., winds) and ocean conditions (i.e., temperatures and currents). Regardless of the causal drivers, when confronted with changes in resource abundance many small-scale fishermen were pressured to the point where traditional fishing practices and livelihood strategies were no longer viable. A large number of individuals left the sector, many seeking employment within a resurgent local mining industry. Those who remained increasingly relied upon novel fishing grounds, technologies, and species assemblages.
Social-ecological systems research typically considers small-scale fishermen as (1) a single resource user unit or (2) identifies sub-groupings based on dominant gear type. However, over the course of our initial field seasons, it became evident that such distinctions were not consistent with how small-scale fishermen self-identified and did not accurately reflect the diversity of user groups present within the fishery system. Respondents directed us toward gear ownership and target species diversification as critical factors informing the continuum along which local fisheries livelihoods were organized and understood (
Small-scale fisheries (SSF) livelihood continuum across coastal fishing communities in the Central Gulf of California.
Community members hold generalist fishermen pursuing traditional livelihood strategies in high esteem. They represent a link to a common cultural heritage and are the physical embodiment of knowledge and techniques that have been passed down from generation to generation. In contrast, specialist fishermen are viewed primarily as economic opportunists that lack the knowledge and skills required to sustain fisheries livelihoods over the long-term. Within the fishing community, seasonal and specialist fishermen are generally considered second and third-tier professionals. While generalist fishermen are admired for their knowledge and technical skills, fishing specialists are often derided for their coarse and unrefined approach to the occupation and their transgressions against traditional codes of conduct and rules-in-use. As one long-time fisherman asserts “the
Faced with declines in resource abundance and shrinking profit margins following the El Niño event of 2009–2010, the fisheries patrons who owned the vast majority of fisheries capital pulled their boats from the water and placed motors into storage. Many of the specialist fishermen previously employed in the jumbo squid fishery migrated and/or found alternative employment. In Santa Rosalía and the surrounding municipalities, it was common to drive past processing plants and scrap yards where equipment lay idle and overturned fiberglass fishing boats covered the grounds. Among those individuals that continued to pursue livelihoods contingent upon the extraction of marine resources, ∼80% were generalist fishermen.
The responses of 44 individuals were assessed in the CCA. Assigning livelihood subgroupings based upon gear ownership and target species diversification, the sample consisted of 15 generalist fishermen, 15 seasonal fishermen, and 14 specialist fishermen. All generalist fishermen, with the exception of one recently retired individual, were active participants in fisheries operations when the survey instrument was executed. The seasonal fishermen subgroup was composed of a mixture of active and inactive respondents. All specialist fishermen were inactive. Relevant demographic information is presented in
A first round of consensus analysis considered all respondents together to assess the existence of a single pattern of responses across all social-ecological propositions. A low first to second eigenvalue ratio (2.830) and a relatively high proportion of low (<0.5) and negative cultural knowledge scores (loadings on the first factor) indicated a lack of agreement among all respondents (
Results of the consensus analysis of the dichotomous social-ecological questionnaire (25 items) presented by livelihood subgrouping.
Group | Factor and eigenvalue | Ratio between factors | Average competence score | Negative scorers? | Conclusion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
All groups ( |
1 = 10.871 2 = 3.841 | 2.830 | 0.441 |
Yes (3) | No consensus (Weak agreement) |
Generalist ( |
1 = 4.974 2 = 1.467 | 3.390 | 0.554 |
No | Consensus |
Seasonal ( |
1 = 3.884 2 = 2.047 | 1.897 | 0.481 |
No | No consensus |
Specialist ( |
1 = 2.895 2 = 1.424 | 2.033 | 0.314 |
Yes (3) | No consensus (Weak agreement) |
Percentage of respondents in each group answering “agree” to individual propositions.
Proposition | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
1. It’s more difficult to make a living on the sea these days than it was before | 95.5% | 92.8% | 100% | |
2. If fishermen are patient, fishery production will return to its previous levels | 81.8% | 71.4% | 80.0% | |
3. The technology that fishermen use today is more destructive than what was used in the past | 45.5% | 21.4% | 53.3% | |
4. The waters around Santa Rosala are contaminated to the degree that they are not suitable for many animals | 77.3% | 64.3% | 86.7% | |
5. In recent years, changes in wind and weather patterns have affected the number and type of animals you can find in the sea | 81.8% | 64.3% | 80.0% | |
6. “Night Divers” have had no impact on the amount of high quality fish available to catch by hook and line | 34.1% | 71.4% | 20.0% | |
7. There were years in the past where environmental conditions were similar to how they are today | 22.7% | 42.9% | 26.7% | |
8. Today, the majority of marine resources in the Gulf are overexploited | 72.7% | 71.4% | 73.3% | |
9. Climate change has not had a large influence on fisheries’ productivity in the Gulf | 34.1% | 42.9% | 33.3% | |
10. If fishermen want to survive in the future they need to develop new techniques and focus on different species | 68.2% | 50.0% | 66.7% | |
11. On their own, the activities of the small-scale fleet are not large enough to affect levels of marine resources | 56.8% | 57.1% | 60.0% | |
12. If prices were higher, fishermen would not fish as hard as they do now | 54.5% | 28.6% | 53.3% | |
13. If the fishing community was better organized, it would be easier to maintain sustainable resources and high incomes | 97.7% | 92.8% | 100% | |
14. I have confidence in the ability of the government and SAGARPA to manage resources in a just and sustainable manner | 18.2% | 14.2% | 26.7% | |
15. If it was easier to access legitimate permits, there would be less illegal fishing in this zone | 65.5% | 57.1% | 73.3% | |
16. Now, on account of the industrial fleet’s activities, there is not sufficient bait fish in this area to support populations of squid, shark, and yellowtail | 81.8% | 78.6% | 86.7% | |
17. The fishing of industrial boats hasn’t had any effect on the resources available to the small scale fleet | 13.6% | 21.4% | 0.0% | |
18. Without the industrial contamination that occurred after the hurricanes in 2009 and 2014, there would still be a squid fishery today in Santa Rosala | 45.5% | 50.0% | 46.6% | |
19. We already have sufficient rules and regulations to maintain sustainable resources in this zone | 34.1% | 50.0% | 13.3% | |
20. In terms of fishery production, the effects of natural phenomenon are small as compared to factors directed by man | 56.8% | 71.4% | 53.3% | |
21. Today anyone can make a living on the sea if they are willing to work hard | 65.9% | 40.0% | 80.0% | |
22. Fishermen these days don’t have the same knowledge of the sea that previous generations had | 59.1% | 57.1% | 60.0% | |
23. The fishing industry will be an important part of the future of this town | 52.3% | 50.0% | 53.3% | |
24. I have confidence in fishing community’s ability to overcome obstacles and come together during difficult times | 56.8% | 64.3% | 46.7% | |
25. Many marine animals have changed their migration routes and now no longer pass by Santa Rosala | 86.4% | 85.7% | 80.0% |
Results of multiple correspondence analysis depicting the degree of similarity across responses to social-ecological propositions by livelihood subgrouping.
Generalist fishermen were more likely to advance progressive, long-term environmental change as a causal driver of fisheries decline as compared to seasonal and specialist fishermen. However, gradual increases in sea surface temperature and height and changes in primary production were more difficult to observe and had less direct significance than did changes in phenology. Many informants practicing generalist livelihood strategies reported that over the past decade the strength and duration of winter blows had diminished and that the strongest winds now arrived during the spring. Though the “calms of May” once represented the region’s most diverse and productive fishing period, fishermen reported that increased variation in winds and surface currents had disrupted many of the long-standing natural patterns and processes upon which harvesting operations were dependent. In addition to reporting decreases in animal size and abundance, informants referenced changes in behavior (e.g., increased variation in the timing and duration of seasonal migrations) and distribution (e.g., organisms found deeper and further offshore). As one long-time fishermen explained, “Before, depending if you were in the cold season or the warm season, you would go out and you knew what you were going to catch and the runs would last a long time. It is not like that now” (Generalist Fisherman, Age: 52). While 93.3% of generalist and 80% of seasonal fishermen agreed that changes in wind and weather patterns had affected the number and type of animals that one could obtain from the sea, only 64.3% of specialists believed the same.
Though specialist fishermen also reported changes in the distribution and abundance of target species, they more commonly associated such observations with discrete events rather than progressive environmental trends. The most popular explanations for fisheries collapse revolved around declines in water quality following hurricane Jimena, which made landfall on the Baja California Peninsula in September of 2009. In the weeks and months following the storm, local resource abundance was reported to have declined rapidly as coastal waters adjacent to Santa Rosalía, laden with storm runoff and physical debris, were persistently turbulent. Several informants claimed that the squid population and (more specifically) their eggs were washed away during the storm as nearshore habitat became unsuitable. While a majority of fishermen agreed that historical, regional mining activity had made the nearshore habitat unsuitable for many species, specialist and seasonal fishermen placed greater emphasis on specific actions and events (i.e., industrial spills) as compared to generalist fishermen.
Informants’ perceptions of the impacts of their own (small-scale) fishing activities were mixed across livelihood categories. Though most fishers acknowledged that the majority of the Gulf’s marine resources were overexploited and many identified sustainability concerns surrounding the use of popular fishing gears (i.e., gillnets and traps), 60% of generalist and 53.3% of seasonal fishermen believed that the use of destructive and/or illegal fishing gears was intensifying as compared to only 21.4% of specialists. Informants reported that as fisheries production had faltered across the Eastern Gulf, fishermen from Sonora and Sinaloa had begun targeting the fishing grounds near Santa Rosalía more frequently and intensively. Night Divers (i.e., fishermen reliant on hookahs, flashlights and spear guns to target high-value species at night) were repeatedly referenced as the most flagrant offenders, indiscriminately harvesting fisheries products regardless of size, reproductive condition, or protected status. While most (71.4%) specialist fishermen doubted that such behaviors negatively impacted the catches of fishers using traditional hook and line methods, few generalist (13.3%) and seasonal (20%) fishermen agreed. Though fishermen held diverse and often competing beliefs concerning the relative importance of many social-ecological drivers, the deleterious impact of the industrial fishing fleet represented a point of common understanding. Only a small percentage of informants believed that the fishing of industrial boats did not have any impact upon the resources available to the small-scale fleet. Fishermen across livelihood subgroupings repeatedly referenced the importance of small-pelagic species (and sardines in particular) in supporting the regional food webs upon which their livelihoods were dependent alongside the belief that such dynamics were being undermined by the industrial sector. Though the incursions of industrial fishing boats and outside fishermen were considered unlawful and unethical, informants emphasized that such activities were likely to continue as long as local fisheries patrons and administrative officials were willing to tolerate and/or facilitate them. When asked whether they had confidence in the ability of local authorities to manage fisheries in a just and sustainable manner, 81.8% of informants said that they did not.
While all generalist fishermen agreed that the changes characterizing recent years were without precedent, some seasonal (26.7%) and specialist (42.9%) fishermen were unwilling or unable to distinguish the current era from other cyclical periods of resource scarcity.
Generalist fishermen practicing traditional livelihood strategies confronted periods of ecological and/or economic uncertainty with patience, persistence, and innovation. Without the contractual obligation to generate income for fisheries patrons or repay accumulated debt, many simply scaled back operations by reducing the number and length of fishing trips. Rather than continuing to supply external markets, some individuals began selling their catch directly to local businesses and throughout their extended kin networks. Others relied upon their direct observations of the marine environment and extensive knowledge of species behavior to develop new fishing methods. Upon observing that yellowtail were running deeper and further offshore, a number of individuals abandoned traditional surface gillnets and began experimenting with deep-set buoy gear. Though LEK was invaluable in developing and implementing such techniques, several informants emphasized its limitations. As natural patterns and processes have grown increasingly irregular, fishermen increasingly supplemented observations of winds, tides, and currents with information from novel sources. Several referenced the critical role of technology (weather reports obtained from the internet,
Reliant upon fisheries patrons to access and market ephemeral fisheries resources, many specialist and seasonal fishermen did not possess the ability to modify fishing tactics and/or switch target species in response to declines in resource abundance. In contrast with generalist fishermen, who remained autonomous and flexible even as catches declined, hired fishing hands lacked agency. Their interactions within the marine environment were ultimately dictated by the priorities of the fisheries patrons for whom they worked. As one squid fishing specialist remarked, “We need some sort of plan to identify where the squid are but we do not know how. We are lost. We don’t know where to capture them. The bosses don’t want to invest. If the bosses don’t want to invest, how can the fishermen push them? What can we do?” (Specialist Fisherman, Age: 39). While the vast majority of specialist and seasonal fishing informants had abandoned or been excluded from the small-scale fishing sector, to an individual each reported a preference for fishing as compared to their current occupation (or lack thereof). Those that continued to work for fisheries patrons were often compelled to fish increasingly distant waters, incurring significant gasoline expenditures, in order to access unexploited aggregations of high-value species. While this high-risk, high-reward strategy was occasionally profitable, when fishing trips were unsuccessful many fishers found themselves spiraling further and further into debt. Though informants were hesitant to confirm their participation in specific activities, many expressed willingness to supplement legal catch with poached products that could be marketed and sold in the underground economy.
In the Gulf of California, external drivers of change are transforming the structure and function of modern SSF systems. Traditional livelihood strategies are increasingly impacted not only by extreme weather events and increasing climate variability, but also by systems of governance that have separated many resource users from the marine environment. Throughout history, small-scale fishers have relied upon LEK to develop strategies to identify and accommodate system disturbance (
Resource users’ knowledge of and interactions within marine social-ecological systems are influenced by the cultural models which mediate their perception of and response to environmental and socioeconomic change. Bolded items (i.e., livelihood practices, permits, and equipment) represent critical factors driving divergent cultural models within SSF systems.
Social-ecological systems science increasingly calls for the integration of LEK and traditional scientific methods to help improve understanding of the impacts of global change and to develop initiatives aimed at fostering adaptive response (
Across the Gulf of California, sustaining a traditional fisheries livelihood approach requires a sophisticated understanding of the ecosystem, the biology and behavior of diverse species, as well as access to a variety of fishing gear and the ability to use it appropriately (
Though diversification is considered an important adaptation strategy, giving fishers the ability to shift species based on what is most convenient, valuable or abundant (
Faced with the inherent uncertainty of their occupations, seasonal and specialist fishermen operate on fundamentally different time horizons, prioritize different kinds of interactions within the social-ecological system, and value different kinds of knowledge. In contrast to the holistic appreciation of system structure and function advanced by generalist fishermen, the environmental knowledge of fishing specialists was more commonly grounded in observations of a specific species (e.g., squid) and the localized processes (e.g., tides and currents) that impacted their distribution and abundance between distinct fishing periods. Generalist fishermen prided themselves upon their astute observations of complex natural phenomena. In contrast, specialist fishermen would often boast of their ability to “game” the system, subverting the authority and oversight of fisheries patrons while working beyond the bounds of formal regulations and traditional rules-in-use. While the compliance of generalist fishermen may, in part, be motivated by fear of reprisal (e.g., losing one’s license, market, or reputation), seasonal and specialist fishermen with short-term economic outlooks may perceive such risks differently, having little to lose.
Throughout the Gulf of California, relations of production shape patterns of resource use and governance by dictating who controls access rights, capital, and profits (
The erosion of resource users’ LEK, without replacement by the production of new knowledge suited to new circumstances, can reduce local capacity to cope with environmental change and have cascading effects for ecosystem health and the provision of ecosystem services (
It is increasingly recognized that research on global change and adaptation requires an interdisciplinary approach that combines different types of knowledge and data (
We argue that within SSF, ecological proximity actively shapes the cultural models that inform how fishermen perceive and respond to changes in the fishery system. Though livelihood diversification can be an effective adaptive response, the ability to diversify is limited to those individuals with the knowledge, means, and desire to do so. Practices and policies that function to limit access to the marine environment or restrict fishing portfolios may ultimately amplify the divisions between human and natural populations and adversely impact system resilience. Rather than pursuing external interventions at odds with local values and needs, scholars and practitioners seeking to promote sustainable and effective adaptation would be well-served to consider how local knowledge could be leveraged to support social learning processes and enhance environmental stewardship. Within and beyond SSF in the Gulf of California, such policy might incorporate efforts designed to identify local experts and knowledge carriers and to elevate their voices within civil, scientific, and political discourse.
As the rate of global change accelerates, the ability of fishermen to detect and respond to changes in the resource systems in which they are embedded is of critical importance (
The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.
TF, LC, and KB conceived and planned the study. TF conducted field work and performed the analysis. KB and LC verified the analytical methods and contributed to the interpretation of results. All authors contributed to the final manuscript.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The authors thank Elena Finkbeiner, Samanthe Tiver Belanger, Julia G. Mason, and the members of the Crowder Lab for helpful discussions and comments on an earlier version of the manuscript; and OTC for ongoing research and logistical support.
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: