Edited by: Andrew Kemp, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
Reviewed by: Stefan Sütterlin, Lillehammer University College, Norway; Adrian Meule, LWL University Hospital of the Ruhr University Bochum, Germany; Fay Geisler, University of Greifswald, Germany
*Correspondence: DeWayne P. Williams, Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 1835 Neil Ave, Room 175, Columbus, 43210 OH, USA
This article was submitted to Emotion Science, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
The
“To act wisely, we must see clearly.”
Emotion regulation (ER) is defined as a process by which individuals modify their emotional experiences, expressions, and subsequent physiological responses (Aldao,
Executive brain areas, such as the prefrontal cortex, exert an inhibitory influence on sub-cortical structures, such as the amygdala, allowing the organism to adaptively respond to demands from the environment, and organize their emotional and behavioral responses effectively (Thayer et al.,
Adopting the NIM framework, researchers have explored various contexts where individuals with low resting vmHRV fail at and/or have difficulties with ER, in addition to downstream physical and mental consequences (as indexed by phasic or acute changes in vmHRV) (Carrico et al.,
Indeed, some researchers propose that ER is not a unitary construct and instead, involves multiple components (Gratz and Roemer,
It is proposed that both lower vmHRV and difficulties in ER are characteristic of certain psychopathological states (Thayer and Lane,
The present study aimed to explore the association of resting vmHRV and self-reported difficulties in ER. We hypothesized that those with lower resting vmHRV would report greater difficulties in everyday ER. However more specifically, the following investigation attempts to understand what day-to-day difficulties in ER resting vmHRV
Data were pooled across five studies conducted within the Emotions and Quantitative Psychophysiology lab. Subjects were recruited from the Research Experience Program (REP) pool at The Ohio State University, allowing students to participate in research for partial class credit in an introductory level psychology course. Funding from The Ohio State University College of Social and Behavioral Sciences and College of Arts and Sciences also allowed us to recruit and compensate participants outside of the REP pool resulting in a diverse sample across the university (i.e., students from various majors and cohorts).
No individual participated in more than one of the five studies.
We asked all participants not to smoke, undergo vigorous physical activity, or drink caffeine 6 h prior to the experiment. Each study was approved by the institutional review board, and all participants signed written informed consent. Data from the five studies have not been submitted or accepted for publication elsewhere; however, results unrelated to the current data are publically available as Theses (Cash,
In all studies, participants were placed in a soundproof experimental room, equipped with a camera and microphone for safety and instructional reasons, and a high definition TV for stimuli presentation. Participants were given a detailed explanation of the procedures that would take place without indicating the specific hypothesis under the study or manipulations applied. Electrocardiogram (ECG) leads were attached to the subjects and while in a separate control room, the experimenter led the subjects to the initial phases of the experiment. All participants first completed a 5-min baseline-resting period, where participants, while spontaneously breathing, sat and viewed a blank, gray screen, and were instructed not to move or fall asleep. Participants either completed an experimental task
Cardiac activity data was recorded continuously throughout each experiment via a 3-lead ECG at a 1000 Hz sampling rate using a Mindware™ 2000D (MW2000D) Impedance Cardiograph package. Resting vmHRV was assessed during a 5-min baseline (spontaneous breathing and resting state) period prior to any experimental task. Electrodes were placed (1) below the right clavicle, (2) on the left side of the abdomen (below the heart), and (3) on the right side of the abdomen. The variability between successive R-spikes (or variability within inter-beat-intervals, IBIs) was obtained from ECG recordings to calculate HRV. Participants' successive IBIs, in milliseconds, were extracted using HRV 2.51 Analysis software. IBIs were written in a text file and analyzed using Kubios HRV analysis package 2.0 (Tarvainen et al.,
Additionally, high-frequency peak values (HF peak) were obtained from the autoregressive analysis as a measure of respiration frequency to control for potential bias (Thayer et al.,
Perceived difficulties in ER were assessed using the
Rumination was assessed using the 22-item Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS; Conway et al.,
Trait anxiety was assessed using the 20-item Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T; Spielberger,
All statistical tests were conducted using SPSS (ver. 19, IBM Chicago, IL, USA). To examine potential bias by pooling data across studies, two univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted to examine differences in RMSSD and DERS scores across studies. Results showed that there were significant differences in mean DERS scores across studies [
Multiple hierarchical regression tests were conducted to examine the relationship between lnRMSSD as a continuous variable and DERS (and subscales) scores controlling for aforementioned covariates. Step one included BMI, age, gender, ethnicity, and experiment as predictors. Step 2 added STAI-T and RRS scores, and step 3 added lnRMSSD and HF peak values as predictors of DERS total and subscale scores. Partial correlation coefficients and associated significance levels between lnRMSSD, covariates, and DERS (and subscales) scores are reported. In addition, a median split was performed on log-transformed RMSSD (RMSSD median value: 46.4586; lnRMSSD median value = 3.8386) to stratify subjects into groups with high and low resting vmHRV. Independent samples
Across the five experiments, 199 participants were enrolled. Nine individuals were removed due to missing data. Seven individuals yielded DERS scores ± 2 standard deviations from the mean and were removed from the overall analyses, leaving data from a total of 183 undergraduate students (98 female, 60 minority
91 | 92 | ||||
Age | 18, 35 | 19.38 (1.97) | 19.29 (2.38) | 0.010 | |
BMI | 16.54, 47.51 | 24.30 (4.99) | 23.64 (4.51) | 0.070 | |
RMSSD | 15.01, 178.02 | 73.57 (24.04) | 32.33 (7.97) | 0.757 | |
lnRMSSD | 2.71, 5.18 | 4.26 (0.28) | 3.44 (0.27) | 0.829 | |
HF Peak | 0.16, 0.40 | 0.266 (0.047) | 0.275 (0.046) | 0.100 | |
DERS | 48, 120 | 77.84 (16.74) | 86.27 (16.00) | 0.250 | |
NONACC | 6, 29 | 12.09 (4.89) | 13.85 (5.53) | 0.167 | |
GOALS | 5, 25 | 12.96 (4.19) | 14.72 (4.34) | 0.202 | |
IMPULSE | 6, 25 | 9.59 (3.30) | 11.05 (4.26) | 0.189 | |
AWARE | 7, 30 | 16.91 (4.61) | 17.15 (4.57) | 0.031 | |
STRAT | 8, 31 | 15.41 (4.78) | 17.33 (4.78) | 0.184 | |
CLARITY | 5, 24 | 12.17 (3.76) | 10.88 (3.76) | 0.145 | |
STAIT | 23, 69 | 39.10 (9.84) | 42.72 (9.12) | 0.187 | |
RRS | 22, 73 | 41.03 (11.34) | 45.30 (11.55) | 0.184 |
lnRMSSD | – | |||||||||
RRS | – | |||||||||
STAI-T | – | |||||||||
DERS Total | – | |||||||||
GOALS | – | |||||||||
IMPULSE | – | |||||||||
AWARE | −0.117 | −0.111 | 0.099 | −0.090 | 0.035 | – | ||||
STRAT | – | |||||||||
CLARITY | – | |||||||||
NONACC | – |
Multiple hierarchical regression models showed that, after controlling for experiment type, age, ethnicity, gender, BMI, STAI-T scores, RRS scores, and HF peak (respiration) values, lnRMSSD was significantly associated with DERS total scores (rpartial = −0.222,
LnRMSSD | −0.036 | −0.113 | −0.133 | −0.088 | |||
HF peak | −0.088 | 0.065 | 0.014 | −0.007 | −0.104 | −0.082 | |
BMI | −0.069 | 0.018 | −0.111 | −0.054 | −0.031 | −0.088 | 0.051 |
Ethnicity | −0.002 | −0.053 | −0.042 | 0.029 | |||
Gender | 0.007 | 0.081 | −0.048 | 0.111 | −0.011 | ||
Age | −0.038 | −0.100 | −0.020 | ||||
STAI-T | 0.122 | ||||||
RRS | 0.135 | −0.033 | |||||
Experiment | 0.078 | −0.067 | 0.046 | 0.106 | 0.126 | −0.025 | 0.061 |
Age | −0.273 |
−0.137 |
−0.148 |
−0.221 |
−0.133 |
−0.142 |
−0.224 |
−0.152 |
−0.163 |
||
Ethnicity | −0.032 | −0.108 |
−0.106 |
−0.001 | −0.050 | −0.048 |
−0.164 |
−0.207 |
−0.205 |
||
Gender | −0.005 | 0.000 | 0.004 |
−0.050 | −0.047 | −0.043 | −0.020 | −0.015 | −0.010 | ||
Experiment | 0.053 | 0.037 | 0.056 | 0.086 | 0.075 | 0.098 | 0.050 | 0.040 | 0.058 | ||
BMI | −0.032 | −0.069 | −0.050 | −0.040 | −0.064 | −0.050 | 0.045 | 0.028 | 0.049 | ||
STAI-T | 0.541 |
0.507 |
0.351 |
0.312 |
0.393 |
0.359 |
|||||
RRS | 0.202 |
0.119 |
0.135 | 0.135 | −0.037 | −0.040 | |||||
HF peak | −0.060 | −0.006 | −0.074 | ||||||||
lnRMSSD | −0.161 |
−0.143 |
−0.167 |
||||||||
Constant | 125.32 | 59.70 | 88.48 | 18.66 | 8.821 | 13.74 | 19.41 | 11.81 | 18.78 | ||
R2 | 0.075 | 0.535 | 0.559 | 0.049 | 0.246 | 0.264 | 0.069 | 0.198 | 0.226 |
The present study is the first study to report a significant negative association between resting vmHRV and self-reported difficulties in everyday ER, as indexed by the DERS. Both general anxiety and ruminative tendencies were correlated with vmHRV and difficulties in ER in the current investigation, such that greater anxiety and rumination were associated with lower vmHRV and greater difficulties in ER. However, after controlling for these psychological covariates, our results provide evidence that those with lower resting vmHRV have greater difficulties with everyday ER.
The DERS scale examines six different facets of ER difficulties. Thus, we were able to examine particular facets of ER and their relation to vmHRV. We found that those with lower vmHRV report greater difficulties with emotional clarity and emotional-impulse control. A lack of emotional clarity can be defined as lacking clarity or understanding of conscious or unconscious negative emotions (Gratz and Roemer,
Additionally, we found vmHRV to be associated with difficulties in controlling impulsive behavior. Difficulty in impulse control is defined as having difficulties in controlling impulsive behaviors when experiencing negative emotions (Gratz and Roemer,
In addition, it is important to note that high and low HRV group analyses revealed the strongest difference between groups on the GOALS subscale of the DERS in comparison to the other subscales. The GOALS subscale represents difficulties in engaging in goal-oriented behavior—actions that are in accordance with present goals and motivations—when negative emotions are present. Therefore, our results suggest that at the group level, those with low HRV likely experience more difficulties in concentrating and accomplishing goal-oriented tasks when experiencing negative emotions in comparison to individuals with high HRV. These results are in line with previous work, suggesting a link between lower resting HRV and greater difficulties in both goal attainment and goal commitment (Verkuil et al.,
Past research has examined the link between vmHRV and ER abilities using specific ER tasks and ER strategies (Melzig et al.,
One limitation of the current investigation is that the sample consisted of college students and thus, the current results may not extend to other age ranges. While we are confident that difficulties in ER will be related to vmHRV in all age groups, we are not sure that difficulties in impulse control and emotional clarity will be closely associated with vmHRV as in the current sample. Thus, future research should attempt to examine the DERS and vmHRV relationship in individuals of various age ranges.
A second limitation of the current investigation is that, while we controlled for anxiety and rumination, other possible psychological covariates, such as perceived stress and depressive symptoms, were not statistically controlled for in the current analysis. Thus, future research should ensure that the current results remain strong and significant when considering other possible psychological covariates.
Moreover, while the relationship between resting vmHRV and difficulties in ER is strong, it is not perfect. Indeed, this could be due to the possible mediating role that rumination and/or anxiety plays on the link between vmHRV and difficulties in ER, especially given the modest correlation between these variables. Nevertheless, within the current sample, there are individuals with adequate inhibitory abilities, as indexed by higher vmHRV, who perceive difficulties in ER. Conversely, there are individuals with lower vmHRV who do not perceive difficulties in ER, despite their lack of inhibitory abilities. This suggests a third variable at play—which could be as simple as the number of emotional encounters (lack of ER experiences) or as complex as individuals' emotional numbness, intelligence, or regulatory skills (lack of ER practice). In fact, recent research suggests that ER should be seen as a motivational process, such that the motivation to engage in ER, in addition to employing ER strategies, differs from person to person, independent of their actual ability (Aldao and Mennin,
Finally, the current investigation is cross-sectional by nature and thus, causation cannot be determined in the present study. However according to the Model of Neurovisceral Integration, it is likely that vmHRV is influencing ER failure and success. On the other hand, other research proposes that maladaptive/adaptive ER decreases/increases acute vmHRV. Thus, it is also likely that those who are maladaptive in their emotional responding have subsequent maladaptive chronic physiological responses. Future research is warranted to explore such notions.
The present investigation shows that resting vmHRV is related to individuals' everyday perceptions of difficulties to regulate their emotions, especially difficulties with emotional clarity and impulse control. Thus, in order to increase adaptive ER success in those with lower vmHRV, these data suggest that individuals should: (1) work to increase vmHRV, as doing so may increase ER; (2) work to understand and identify negative emotions, so that they have the opportunity to adaptively regulate such distressing emotions and; (3) these individuals should work to inhibit impulsive behavior, as these responses may be undesirable. The current study both supports the NIM and extends prior research on ER and vmHRV, giving two facets of ER (impulse control and emotional clarity) that should be of particular focus when investigating the link between resting vmHRV and ER. Overall, the current data support the notion that vmHRV serves as a proxy of ER ability, especially when negative emotions are unclear and resulting behavior is impulsive. We live in a world where we often experience both simple and complex emotions—we hope that future research gives special attention to these facets of ER as doing so may assist in understanding the link between ER and negative physical and mental health outcomes and longevity.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Funding for Open Access provided by The Ohio State University Open Access Fund. Funding for participant compensation provided by The Ohio State University College of Social and Behavioral Sciences and College of Arts and Sciences.
1Experimental tasks in each study were specific to the primary aims of each investigation. Presumably, these tasks did not alter influence the current results.
2There were a total of 17 Asian Americans, 28 African Americans, 1 Brazilian, 12 Hispanic Americans, 2 Native Americans.