Edited by: Gary Edward McPherson, University of Melbourne, Australia
Reviewed by: Susan O'Neill, Simon Fraser University, Canada; Terry Clark, Royal College of Music, UK
*Correspondence: Johannes L. Hatfield
This article was submitted to Performance Science, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
The purpose of the present mixed method study was to investigate personal benefits, perceptions, and the effect of a 15-week sport psychological skills training program adapted for musicians. The program was individually tailored for six music performance students with the objective of facilitating the participants' instrumental practice and performance. The participants learnt techniques such as
What does the number one tennis player Roger Federer have in common with the world famous pianist Leif Ove Andsnes? Intuitively, one may believe they represent two completely different phenomena. However, digging more profoundly into this matter, we realize they are both performers expected to achieve at the highest level. Both performers have achieved their level of success through winning competitions, thus overcoming tremendous external and internal pressure. Moreover, their attainment of expertise is based on thousands of hours of deliberate practice ensuing tremendous motor control. In comparison to aspiring musicians, aspiring athletes are to a greater extent supported by a huge apparatus of coaches, doctors and physical therapists. This enables the best possible training and performance conditions for each individual athlete (Hays,
The primary aim of the present study was to investigate personal benefits, perceptions, and the effects of an individually tailored psychological skills training intervention for performing music students. Zimmerman's cyclical model of self-regulation was applied as both the theoretical and practical frame of the intervention (Zimmerman and Schunk,
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) refers to “
Studies regarding self-regulation in instrumental practice have found that self-regulated music students were metacognitive, self-efficacious, gritty, and proactive in regard to instrumental practice. Furthermore, these studies have found that self-regulated music students have a larger repertoire of practice strategies than less self-regulated music students (Nielsen,
Research in performance sciences is growing. The field has investigated instrumental practice quality, self-regulation, and deliberate practice for decades (Ericsson et al.,
Retrospective feedback regarding the overall program revealed that participants requested a greater use of group interaction and discussions, thus learning from one another. Better and more frequent application of skills in the performance situation was also requested (Clark and Williamon,
Research individually tailoring PST to musicians is underrepresented in the field of performance sciences. Thus, in contrast to previous studies (e.g., Hoffman and Hanrahan,
The present study was based on the following research questions:
How can PST facilitate music students' instrumental practice and performance? Might the use of psychological skills have a positive impact on music students' perceived Might the use of psychological skills decrease music student's
Since the program constituted an
The present study was based on a pilot study that aimed
During the second half of the fall semester 2014, six music performance majors were voluntarily recruited from the music academy's performance grogram. Due to a high interest rate, an electronic questionnaire was developed for screening the most suitable cases. The questionnaire was sent to all the 26 potential recruits assessing their availability, previous experience with PST, and degree of interest in PST
The PST-intervention lasted for 15 weeks, from 12th of January until 27th of April 2015. The PST-intervention included 15 individual sessions and 7 group sessions (i.e., the group sessions took place every other week followed up by a 30 min individual session. The group sessions lasted for 60–90 min, while the remaining 8 individual sessions lasted for about 60 min). All participants were asked to pick at least two works of music they wanted to study throughout the intervention (i.e., from scratch to the concert podium). The participants were told to perform their selected works both in concert and in two dress rehearsals. An individual approach laid the basis for the overall implementation and development of the PST-intervention. In essence, self-assessment (i.e., including SLMQ and pre-intervention interviews) laid the foundation for individual tailoring of PST. The individual sessions worked as an arena for elaborating individual needs and training procedures. The group sessions encouraged the participants to apply the techniques they were working on in front of their colleagues. The group sessions also encouraged participants to exchange ideas and experiences. Hence, the participants learnt and applied PST both individually and together with other participants. Internalizing and frequently trying out the psychological skills was highlighted throughout the intervention. In coherence with sport psychological conventions, goal setting constituted a foundation for ongoing PST and individual progress. Based on individual needs, the students worked on techniques including attentional focus/concentration (e.g., centering), imagery, arousal-regulation, and acceptance training (e.g., self-talk) (Andersen,
The first author delivered all group and individual PST sessions. In addition to having studied sport science/psychology and educational science, the first author had years of training and experience as a professional cellist. Moreover, the combination of extensive knowledge of PST and instrumental practice/performance enabled the application of appropriate integration and adaption of PST-techniques (Andersen,
Self-regulated Learning in Music Questionnaire (SLMQ), Hatfield et al. (
Generally, the internal consistency was very good, except arousal-regulation (α = 0.58), self-control (α = 0.63), concentration (α = 0.64), and coping (α = 0.69), which according to conservative criteria (Kerlinger,
A
The participants'
Based on Hatfield and Lemyre (
The present study applied mixed methods (i.e., concurrent nested design), “
Kolmogorov-Smirnov criteria for normal distribution (K-S) found that 9 of the 13 sub-scales met the test criteria for normal distribution (
Qualitative data was analyzed based on principles deriving from thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, Familiarization with data supported by transcription and repeated reading of the raw data making initial ideas and impressions. Initial coding based on both theory (i.e., self-regulation theory) and identified relevant features systematically identified throughout the data set. Generating potential themes based on initial codes linking all relevant data. Reviewing to what extent the themes generated fit the coded extracts and the overall data set. Defining and naming of themes in relation to the overall story deriving from the analysis. Producing the report selecting vivid extract examples and final analysis related to the research question and the literature creating the report.
Data from all three sources (i.e., semi-structured interviews, research log, practice journals) were in the end integrated into comprised case reports including key themes representing each participant's development throughout the program. Key themes were subsequently compared across cases, reported, and illustrated through thematic mapping (Braun and Clarke,
The quantitative component in the present study was meant to supply and clarify the qualitative aspects, which served as the main empiric body of the present research (i.e., concurrent nested design) (Creswell,
As illustrated in Tables
Goal-setting | 2.85 (0.59) | 3.68 (0.65) | 1.2 | ||
Self-efficacy | 4.13 (0.60) | 4.47 (0.35) | 1.58 | 0.17 | 0.63 |
Time-management | 3.43 (1.0) | 3.80 (0.94) | 1.21 | 0.28 | 0.35 |
Psych. skills: | 2.54 (0.27) | 3.31 (0.25) | 2.7 | ||
Imagery | 2.50 (1.0) | 3.41 (0.97) | 0.85 | ||
Arousal-regulation | 2.55 (0.77) | 3.33 (0.63) | 1.0 | ||
Concentration | 2.38 (0.68) | 3.38 (0.57) | 1.4 | ||
Self-control | 2.75 (0.63) | 3.12 (0.34) | 1.32 | 0.24 | 0.67 |
Self-observation | 2.94 (0.38) | 3.88 (0.54) | 1.8 |
Worry | 3.80 (0.70) | 2.76 (0.62) | −2.20 | −1.4 | |
Self-evaluation | 2.83 (1.0) | 3.38 (0.87) | 1.84 | 0.054 | |
Perception of prog. | 3.05 (1.1) | 3.44 (0.40) | 0.730 | 0.456 | 0.43 |
Coping | 2.66 (0.66) | 3.61 (0.40) | 2.33 | 1.6 |
Student 1 pre | 2.50 | 4.17 | 2.00 | 4.00 | 2.29 | 2.50 | 2.67 | 2.00 | 2.00 | 3.33 | 2.00 | 3.67 | 2.67 |
Student 1 post | 3.00 | 4.00 | 2.20 | 2.80 | 3.19 | 4.00 | 3.33 | 2.67 | 2.75 | 4.00 | 3.67 | 3.67 | 3.67 |
Student 2 pre | 4.00 | 4.17 | 2.80 | 3.80 | 2.92 | 3.50 | 2.00 | 2.67 | 3.50 | 3.33 | 4.67 | 2.33 | 4.00 |
Student 2 post | 4.50 | 5.00 | 4.20 | 2.40 | 3.71 | 4.50 | 4.00 | 3.33 | 3.00 | 4.67 | 4.67 | 3.67 | 5.00 |
Student 3 pre | 2.50 | 3.83 | 4.20 | 2.60 | 2.63 | 1.00 | 3.33 | 2.67 | 3.50 | 2.67 | 2.33 | 3.00 | 2.33 |
Student 3 post | 3.00 | 4.50 | 4.00 | 2.00 | 3.29 | 2.50 | 4.00 | 3.67 | 3.00 | 3.67 | 2.33 | 3.67 | 3.33 |
Student 4 pre | 2.38 | 4.83 | 5.00 | 3.80 | 2.44 | 2.00 | 2.67 | 2.33 | 2.75 | 2.33 | 2.00 | 3.33 | 2.33 |
Student 4 post | 3.50 | 4.67 | 4.40 | 3.60 | 2.94 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.75 | 3.00 | 3.00 | 3.33 | 3.00 |
Student 5 pre | 2.88 | 3.33 | 3.80 | 4.80 | 2.23 | 2.00 | 1.33 | 3.33 | 2.22 | 3.00 | 3.67 | 1.33 | 2.33 |
Student 5 post | 4.38 | 4.50 | 4.80 | 2.40 | 3.35 | 3.50 | 2.33 | 4.33 | 3.25 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 3.67 | 3.33 |
Student 6 pre | 2.88 | 3.83 | 2.80 | 3.80 | 2.79 | 4.00 | 3.33 | 1.33 | 2.50 | 3.00 | 2.33 | 4.67 | 2.33 |
Student 6 post | 3.75 | 4.17 | 3.20 | 3.40 | 3.42 | 4.00 | 3.33 | 3.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | 2.67 | 2.67 | 3.33 |
The qualitative findings based on individual thematic case analysis were ultimately cross-case analyzed searching for diverging and converging trends in the overall data. Findings revealed both collective trends, as well as individual differences between the participants.
At the beginning of the program, all participants were assessed filling out questionnaires that were followed up by semi-structured interviewing. Moreover, six key themes were found across the data set. The first theme identified was
S2 (string student) and S3 (woodwind student) were organized and structured in their approach to instrumental practice. However, they still expressed a need of becoming more explicit and concrete in their instrumental practice. S1 (jazz student) stated that he was never involved in goal setting whatsoever. S1's practice activity was generally reactive and affective resulting in frustration and procrastination. However, when approaching important concerts, gigs etc., S1 managed to somehow pull himself together.
The second theme found across the data set was
The third theme identified across the cases was
It turned out that this issue was linked to both lack of goal specificity, task relevant focus, and
The fourth main theme identified was
Finally, some of the participants (S1, S4, S5, and S6) expressed that they felt particularly non-volitional (i.e.,
It turned out that the non-volitional participants were all very eager to achieve a satisfactory outcome as soon as possible. This caused a type of “hastened” practice style based on an overwhelming desire to master the work immediately (see
In contrast, both S2 and S3 showed inclination toward volitional practice habits.
Moreover, the participants turned out to have both shared and individual needs according to the initial assessment. The thematic map (
During the first week of implementation, all the participants started to work on hierarchical goal setting. Long-term goals were chunked down to outcome goals, which in turn were chunked down to medium and short-term goals (i.e., weekly and daily goals). Thematic analysis revealed that goal setting was inextricably connected to concentration (see
Some of the participants (two jazz and one string player, S1, S5, and S6) found it arduous to apply the practice journal continuously. However, they found it more motivating and developing to apply the journals, rather than not applying them. E.g., S1 was very persistent writing down goals for himself during the first weeks of the intervention. However, he found it increasingly difficult to keep up with the detailed goal setting. As a result, he preferred to organize his goals mentally. This changed throughout the program as the participant took the initiative to write down his goals once again.
As mentioned, lack of concentration was identified as a main theme among all the participants. In dealing with concentration issues,
As the program progressed, it turned out that three string players (S2, S4, and S5) and one jazz player (S1) were generally preoccupied with not living up to their own and other's expectations (i.e., perfectionistic concerns). This was further unfolded through tense and aroused styles of performing. In dealing with this, the participants spent time on building a non-judgmental sort of focus. This increased the participants' resilience when facing failure. The following sample illustrates how this work was carried out:
Research journal: “
This kind of acceptance training became a key-factor influencing all the participants (i.e., especially the four participants who turned out to have perfectionistic concerns). Moreover, the participants actively started to apply new mindsets to their performances (for review see Model
Moreover,
S5, who performed a virtuoso piece for violin had increasingly become more confident during the last 4 weeks of the intervention. She finally dared to express the music freely, letting go of unnecessary control. In general, each participant was amazed by the progress of other participants. Having multiple opportunities to apply PST in various settings seemed to have facilitated this progress. Although the participants worked on different issues, they all benefited from discussing and observing how others were working during group sessions.
Throughout the intervention, the participants experienced both ups and downs including optimistic days, as well as days filled with struggle and agony.
In general, writing down experiences (i.e., positive and negative ones) tended to foster self-awareness in the participants. This enabled them to self-regulate their subsequent actions. In the face of failure, the participants seemed to attribute their struggles to inappropriate use strategies. Moreover, adaptive coping was identified as a key-theme based on proactivity and metacognition (see
Interviews regarding participants‘ experience of the PST revealed that all participants gained more knowledge about themselves as music performers and practitioners.
Questions assessing participants' perceptions of electronic practice journals revealed that some of the participants liked them more than others. However, all participants expressed that the journals had made them more aware and reflective in regard to instrumental practice. S6 stated that she was not interested in using gadgets. She preferred writing comments on paper, which she did accordingly. S3 had similar experiences using the practice journal. However, he had recognized the usefulness of continuing this practice.
Although it only took an extra 10 min a day, the actual deed of getting oneself to write in the diary seemed to require extra effort and volition.
The four participants involved in perfectionistic concerns (S1, S2, S4, S5), turned out to have become more task-oriented, resilient, adaptively coping, and self-efficacious in their practice and performance (see Model
Furthermore, post-interviews demonstrated that goal setting enhanced the participants' motivation, concentration and self-efficacy (see Model
In general, all participants perceived the program as personally developing. Thus, the PST facilitated their motivation and joy in making music. The results from the thematic analysis were mapped down in thematic charts:
Model
Follow-up interviews were conducted 8 months after finishing the intervention. Generally, the interviews revealed that the participants were still actively applying psychological skills acquired during the program. Firstly, all the participants expressed they had become generally more aware and self-reflected in their daily practice.
S2 (string player) stated that she still struggling with some self-criticism prior to concerts. However, being aware of how to deal with it helped significantly. S2 had continued to use imagery and acceptance training in her pre-performance routines. However, she expressed a need of becoming even better at applying PST more frequently. Finally, she could not imagine herself practicing without the knowledge and use of the techniques.
S3 (woodwind player) continued to be specific in his planning and expressed that he managed to maintain his concentration applying centering. He had become much more resistant due to being patient and volitional. Additionally, S3 had become more involved in self-evaluation and self-observation through recording himself during practice sessions. Finally, S3 uttered a continued need for individual PST sessions.
S4 (string player) was still applying psychological skills. S4 expressed a need of continuity.
However, S4 also stated that she had become more volitional and deliberate as a result of the PST intervention. Moreover, she had become more self-confident and resilient in the face of failure.
S6 (Jazz player) was actively applying a practice journal writing down specific goals.
Compared to before, S6 recognized that she now noticed daily progress. In general, all the participants completing the follow up interview were eager to continue applying psychological skills in their practice and performances
The aim of the present article was to investigate the impact of a PST-intervention for musicians from a self-regulated learning theory perspective. A mixed method approach including qualitative measures corroborated by quantitative measures operationalized the study. The present study found that the participants were reactive practitioners to various degrees. Themes identified included general goal setting, concentration, volition, physical pain, and perfectionism (see Models
In accordance with previous studies, the present study found that the participants were uninvolved with deliberate planning of instrumental practice (Jørgensen,
The quantitative findings revealed that all participants decreased in worry after implementation of PST. Additionally, quantitative findings revealed that the participants' ability of regulating their arousal increased from pre- to post-test. These measures fit the participants' perception of becoming increasingly more resilient, self-efficacious and confident in performance situations. Having multiple opportunities to apply psychological skills in front of others generated a learning environment that enabled
Perfectionistic concerning participants became perfectionistic strivers as they progressed throughout the program. In line with Stoeber (
The use of practice journals greatly facilitated the participants' self-awareness, metacognition, and self-observation. Furthermore, the students suddenly had the means to plan and reflect on their practice without being “tempted” and affected by their instrument and spontaneous desires. In fact, the temptation to start out practicing in a random intuitive way turned out to be a source of distraction in several of the participants prior to intervention. In essence, the participants turned out to be more volitional and satisfied with their practice due to ending and starting every practice session writing down reflections and goals. Paradoxically, a striving toward peak performance seems to make music students particularly prone to reactive instrumental practice. Instead of deliberately analyzing what is needed on the path to perfection, reactive learners attempt the final outcome in an overenthusiastic way (Weinberg and Gould,
Drawing on a previous pilot-intervention study (Hatfield and Lemyre,
The study was subject to some limitation. Firstly, the number of participants was very small.
This had implications for generalization of the results and the quantitative methods applied. A greater amount of cases (>30) would have enabled external validity. Second, the present study did not include a control group. Having a control group might have strengthened the overall understanding of the effects comparing results of the experimental group and the control group. Accordingly, this would be recommended for future interventions.
The present study presented a vast variety of empirical data targeting benefits, challenges, and implications of a PST-intervention for musicians. The main body of findings derived from qualitative sources including participants' practice journals, semi-structured interviews, and research logs. Qualitative findings were supplied by quantitative measures indicating the effects of the intervention. Moreover, the overall design attempted to cover both the breadth and depth of the intervention.
In line with self-regulated learning theory, the present study found that forethought phase activity (i.e., strategic planning, self-assessment and goal setting) facilitated performance phase and self-reflection phase activity (Zimmerman,
The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and approved it for publication.
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
1
2
3Building on the pilot study (Hatfield and Lemyre,
4The recruitment questionnaire applied “time for individual practice,” “availability and interest in PST” as inclusion criteria. “Work besides studies” (unavailability) “previous experience with PST” were the exclusion criteria.
5Hedges' G test of standardized effect size is especially recommended for small samples as it adds a correction factor for small samples.
6S5 had quit music studies. Consequently, the follow up-interview was not completed.