Introduction
The study of using music in everyday life and of musical preferences has been widely addressed in the scientific literature, in the last decades (Schäfer and Sedlmeier, 2009; Lonsdale and North, 2011; Schäfer et al., 2013). Regarding this subject, researchers have adopted in particular two different methodologies, so that listeners may indicate their musical preference: verbal preference/self-report assessment or sound preference/excerpt-based assessment (Fricke and Herzberg, 2017; Upadhyay et al., 2017).
The first method is more recurrent in the literature and consists of requesting participants to evaluate their musical preference from a list of music or of music styles (e.g., Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Gouveia et al., 2008; Lorenzo et al., 2014; Upadhyay et al., 2017). The second, however, differs from the first, since it uses fragments of music pieces and request participants to value their preference for each fragment heard (e.g., Rentfrow et al., 2011, 2012; Langmeyer et al., 2012; Greenberg et al., 2016).
According to Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2013), regardless of the methodology used, different investigations converged on two questions about musical preferences. Firstly, there is an underlying structure and, secondly, those are linked to different psychological characteristics.
Regarding its structure, it is common to find that different genres or music styles are grouped into a series of dimensions or factors. Thus, Rentfrow and Gosling (2003) obtained four dimensions of music preference: Reflective and Complex (Blues, Jazz, Classic, and Folk music), Intense and Rebellious (Rock, Alternative, and Heavy metal music), Upbeat and Conventional (Country, Soundtracks, Religious, and Pop music), and Energetic and Rhythmic (Rap/Hip-Hop, Soul/Funk, Electronic/Dance music). This classification has been used in different studies, although its structure has not always been confirmed (Langmeyer et al., 2012).
Other studies suggest five dimensions of music preference, identified by the acronym MUSIC: Mellow (e.g., Pop), Unpretentious (e.g., Country), Sophisticated (e.g., Classic), Intense (e.g., Rock), and Contemporary (e.g., Rap) (Rentfrow et al., 2011, 2012; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Fricke and Herzberg, 2017). However, the music styles included in each dimension may differ according to the study. Thus, it is possible to obtain even more dimensions. Hence, in the study published by Schäfer and Sedlmeier (2009), there are six dimensions: Sophisticated, Electronic, Rock, Rap, Pop, and Beat, Folk and Country Music. On the other hand, George et al. (2007) identified eight dimensions: Rebellious, Classical, Rhythmic and Intense, Easy Listening, Fringe, Contemporary Christian, Jazz and Blues, and Traditional Christian). North (2010) indicates ten dimensions: Classic Music, Jazz, Mainstream, Folk, Alternative Rock, Latin, Black Music, Dance, Rock, and Functional). The main reason for which the number of dimensions varies between different studies relies on the number of music styles taken into account and the cultural specificities of each study were identified. However, Rentfrow et al. (2011) highlighted the existence of three recurrent factors in the literature: a first factor defined by Classic and Jazz music styles. A second factor includes the Rock and Heavy Metal; and the third factor is defined by Rap and Hip-Hop.
Regarding the psychological characteristics associated with musical preferences, personality has been one of the most widely studied psychological correlates (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic et al., 2010; Brown, 2012; Neuman et al., 2016). The model of personality on which many studies were based has been the Big Five model (Goldberg, 1992; Goldberg et al., 2006), which indicates that personality is structured around five domains: Extraversion (talkativeness, assertiveness, and energy), Agreeableness (good-naturedness, cooperativeness, and trust), Conscientiousness (orderliness, responsibility, and dependability), Emotional Stability (the polar opposite of Neuroticism), and Intellect/Imagination (originality, curiosity, and ingenuity), also known as Openness. Emotional reactions to music are determined by the personality of the listeners, a reason for which the study of personality in music preferences is relevant (Juslin et al., 2011).
In particular, the Openness domain appears as the best predictor of music preferences and tends to be associated with intense emotions prior music (Langmeyer et al., 2012; Liljeström et al., 2013). Different studies have proven that this personality trait correlates positively, especially with music styles considered sophisticated (e.g. Jazz, Blues and Classic) and rebellious/intense (e.g., Rock, Alternative, Punk, and Heavy metal) (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; George et al., 2007; Delsing et al., 2008; Langmeyer et al., 2012; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Fricke and Herzberg, 2017), presenting negative correlations with Pop, Soundtracks, and Gospel (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Zweigenhaft, 2008; Langmeyer et al., 2012). Taking these as a whole, Jazz is the music style whose positive correlation is more reflected in the certain studies due to its positive correlation with Openness.
The Extraversion domain tends to correlate positively with Rap/Hip-Hop, Pop, and Soul/R&B/Funk styles (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Delsing et al., 2008; Langmeyer et al., 2012; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Fricke and Herzberg, 2017). However, George et al. (2007) have found different results in relation to the first two styles, obtaining positive correlations with Openness and negative with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. Agreeableness, in turn, often appears positively correlated with Gospel and Pop styles and, to a lesser extent, with Electronic, Rap/Hip-Hop, Soul/R&B/Funk, and Soundtracks (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Delsing et al., 2008).
Furthermore, different studies agree on the negative correlation between the Conscientiousness domain and Alternative styles, Punk, and Rock and the positive correlation with Country music, Gospel, and Pop style (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; George et al., 2007; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013).
Regarding the domain or personality of Neuroticism trait, we observed that this correlates negatively with rebellious/intense styles (Alternative and Rock) (Langmeyer et al., 2012; Fricke and Herzberg, 2017) and positively with the Classic style (Delsing et al., 2008; Dunn et al., 2011).
The literature indicates that, in addition to personality, there are other variables that influence music preferences, that is, age and gender. On the first one, there are several studies corroborating that music preferences and their intensity are directly related to age (e.g., North, 2010; Fricke and Herzberg, 2017). At this regard, Levitin (2011) considers the period between 18 and 20 years as the time limit for the acquisition of new music preferences. This is the stage in which occurs the crystallization of the musical taste and, according to Delsing et al. (2008), it may be related to personal maturity and identity formation.
Zweigenhaft (2008) observed differences in the preference of listening to Punk, Blues, Country, and Soul/Funk styles, this being the most listened by adolescents and others adults. Soares de Quadros and Lorenzo (2010) found a higher frequency of listening among Brazilian students already aged 19 years old, when compared to the youngest for the Bossa-Nova, Bolero, Flamenco, Jazz, Salsa, and Soul styles. On the other hand, North (2010) found a positive correlation between age and preference for Classic, Jazz, Mainstream, Folk, Latin, and Functional metastyles. Negative association was observed for MOBO, Dance, Alternative Rock, and Rock metastyles. For the author, age is positively associated with the preference to listen more complex music styles. Coinciding with this idea, Lorenzo et al. (2014) found a greater preference for listening styles considered as musically less complex (Dance, Breakdance, Speed, and Trash) for the younger age group (16–19 years), when compared to adults.
In their study, Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2013) verified that while the preference for certain types of music increased with age (e.g., Intense, Contemporary), for others it was the opposite (e.g., Unpretentious, Sophisticated). In addition, they observed a singular behavior in preferring the Mellow music (e.g., Electronic/Dance), decreasing up to 30 years old and increasing again after 50 years old (Fricke and Herzberg, 2017).
Regarding the second variable, i.e., gender, there are several studies affirming the existence of a greater preference of men toward styles considered more “hard,” exciting, linked to non-conformity behaviors with imposed patterns and social rules, which strengthen the ties within the peer group (like Rap/Hip-Hop and Reggae). On the contrary, women are inclined to prefer “softer” music, with more emotional content, made to dance and with a clear dependence on more social media patterns, such as Pop (e.g., Pimentel et al., 2005; Colley, 2008; Gouveia et al., 2008; North and Hargreaves, 2008).
North (2010) verifies that men show a high preference for Jazz, Dance, Rock, and Functional metastyle, while women increasingly choose Classical, Mainstream, Folk, Alternative Rock, Latin, and MOBO styles. On the other hand, George et al. (2007) observed a greater preference of men toward Rebellious music (e.g., Heavy metal), while women mainly prefer Easy Listening styles (e.g., Pop). However, Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2013) find gender differences only for listening to Unpretentious music (e.g., Pop and Country), with a greater preference for the female gender.
Soares de Quadros and Lorenzo (2010) observed that, in general, Brazilian women listen to a wider variety of musical styles when comparing to men: Pagode, Sertanejo, Romantic, Forró, Axe music, Bolero, Pop, Jazz, Salsa, Ska, Soundtracks, and Gospel. This result is related to the hypothesis about the greater musical eclecticism of the female gender (Crowther and Durkin, 1982). Tipa (2015) highlights that women tend to use music as sound background in much of their daily activities, while for men this plays a major role especially in social and affective relationships established between peer groups. At this regard, Soares de Quadros and Lorenzo (2010) verify a greater inclination of male Brazilian adolescents to play music strengthening the ties within the same group, such as Heavy Metal and Rap.
For North and Hargreaves (2008), the main reason for a gender effects on musical listening behavior would be related to differences in the use of music. While men listen to music looking for the effect on social membership with their peer group, women listen to music as a way to satisfy their emotional needs. This is related to what Gouveia et al. (2008) exposed, concerning that women adhere more to normative values and have a greater tendency to emotional contagion, while men are more liberal and seekers of sensations. According to what mention above, North (2010) adds that men use music to be creative, awaken the imagination and pleasing friends. Women, on the other hand, use it for moments of pleasure, relieve boredom, express feelings and emotions and mitigate the loneliness.
According to what has been described so far, the main goal of this research is to analyze music preferences that young and adult Brazilians present as well as the relationship of these with their personality. This objective is articulated around three specific objectives. Firstly, perform an adaptation of different tests, allowing to measure personality and music preferences in Brazil. Secondly, analyze the correlation between these aspects. Thirdly, identify if musical preferences differ according to age and gender.
Discussion
This research focused on the analysis of musical preferences and personality of Brazilian adults and young individuals. In line with previous studies (Langmeyer et al., 2012; Liljeström et al., 2013), it became clear that the personality scale related to Intellect/Openness is one related to all music preferences dimensions, with the exception of Afro-American Music in this study. On the one hand, it has been found that Intellect/Openness correlates positively with styles considered more complex musically (e.g., Classic and Ethnic Music), rebellious (e.g., Rock Music) and exciting (e.g., Electronic Music) (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Vella and Mills, 2016). On the other hand, a negative correlation was identified with styles defined as light music, characterized by their emotional content, less musical complexity and high connection to the mass media (e.g., Brazilian Mainstream Music) (Zweigenhaft, 2008). Thus, it is possible that individuals presenting a greater development of the Intellect/Openness dimension tend to listen to highly artistic and aesthetic music styles, dynamic and exciting or capable to awake the curiosity to what is heard.
Similarly, the Agreeableness personality scale correlated positively with music styles emphasizing positive emotions in their listeners (e.g., Brazilian Music), which agrees with previous studies (Langmeyer et al., 2012; Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013). In addition, the association of this personality trait with styles linked to Latin-American rhythms was observed, which favor couple or group dancing (e.g., Latin Dance Music). The results found herein indicate that listeners with a greater tendency toward Agreeableness appreciate music emphasizing an optimistic view of life, which is often heard and shared in social groups. On the other hand, a negative, although low, correlation was observed between Agreeableness and styles considered anti-authoritarian, e.g., Rock and its derivatives, results in line with George et al. (2007). However, North (2010) and Zweigenhaft (2008) affirm that Rock fans do not necessarily have a vision of the rebel world, contrary to part of the specialized literature. Due to the divergence of results found in this section, it is necessary to carry out further work, as this will allow deepening and finding explanatory hypotheses with greater convergence.
The results obtained for Conscientiousness converge with previous studies (Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Delsing et al., 2008), suggesting that individuals with a strong Conscientiousness trait have a greater preference for styles associated with positive, musically more complex emotions and that somehow favor introspection. On the other hand, in this study it was also found that Conscientiousness correlated negatively with musical dimensions associated with anti-authoritarian behavior (Rock Music, Afro-American Music, and Alternative Music). This confirms the outstanding characteristic of this type of listeners with respect to the value they attribute to certain aspects of their personality, e.g., responsibility and discipline.
Extraversion was the only dimension that did not present negative correlations with different musical dimensions evaluated. This may suggest that individuals with strong Extraversion traits possess omnivorous musical tastes, being more open to appreciation and musical cultural diversity (Elvers et al., 2015). Regarding the positive correlations found, firstly, it was observed the highest association with Brazilian Mainstream Music, a musical dimension that adds music styles of mass consumption, frequently present in parties and clubs of different Brazilian contexts, thus corroborating the results published by Langmeyer et al. (2012). Secondly, an association between the Extraversion personality scale and the music strongly characterized by its link with music styles favoring a collective musical practice (e.g., Brazilian Music and Latin Dance Music) was established. This might be related to one of the characteristics of this personality trait, namely gregariousness, which is defined as the need of the individual to share experiences (musical) with his social group (Lamers et al., 2012). As expected, Extraversion also appeared associated with music styles defined as energetic and rhythmic (e.g., Afro-American Music), a result in line with different works (Langmeyer et al., 2012; Fricke and Herzberg, 2017). For all what previously described, it is possible to assume that individuals with high Extraversion scores tend to prefer music valuing assertiveness, positive emotions and social exchange.
The Emotional Stability personality scale appears as the one with the lowest incidence, although the one providing the most divergent results when compared to the scientific literature. First, a negative correlation was found between this personality trait and music styles considered rebellious and linked to anti-authoritarian behavior (e.g., Rock Music). Thus, it showed divergence with the study by Langmeyer et al. (2012), but it was in agreement with Fricke and Herzberg (2017). Linking the results, we found and the features characterizing the opposite end to Emotional Stability, i.e., Neuroticism, it can be suggested that more neurotic individuals tend to prefer music often appearing in the literature as frequently associated with anti-social behaviors, e.g., alcohol and use of illicit drugs, violence, suicide and other (Lester and Whipple, 1996; Pimentel et al., 2009; Till et al., 2016). Secondly, positive correlations were found with more sociable music styles (e.g., Latin Dance Music), emphasizing positive emotions (e.g., Brazilian Music) that might be related to the fact that individuals more emotionally stable tend to be more friends one to another. They are also quiet and presenting little mood changes. On the other hand, Emotional Stability was also positively associated with more reflective and complex music styles (e.g., Classic and Ethnic Music), contrary to the results found by Delsing et al. (2008).
Regarding the analysis conducted according to variables, e.g., age and gender, it was observed that the results obtained for the age variable converge, to a large extent, with the study by North (2010). This indicates that older individuals prefer listening to Latin, more sophisticated and of greater music complex styles. However, young people showed a greater preference for music styles related to Rock music. In turn, these results are different from those found by Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2013). On gender, men were more interested in musically more complex styles (e.g., American Music), with critical content and associated with rebellious behavior (e.g., Rock Music) (George et al., 2007; North, 2010). On the other hand, women showed preference toward musical styles which emphasize positive emotions and are more framed into the Brazilian culture (Brazilian Music), these being results in agreement with previous studies (Pimentel et al., 2005; Colley, 2008).
Taken together, the results of the two groups of step-wise linear regressions carried out indicated that preferences for different musical dimensions were not only the result of personality, but in some cases were driven significantly by age and gender. In this respect, taking into account the R2 changes, these socio-demographic variables presented a greater weight than the personality in the musical dimensions related to Classical and Ethnic Music, Latin Dance Music and Brazilian Music. However, it is necessary to show that the R2 values obtained in the present work were low, so these results have to be taken with caution.