Over the last two decades, one of the topics in educational psychology research has focused on responding to the need for more empirically validated studies to assess how effectively teachers’ professional development (TPD) improves their self-efficacy, knowledge, skills, and teaching practice as well as how TPD contributes to their personal, social, and emotional growth as teachers. This literature review includes some of these contributions and others from other disciplines that have also provided knowledge about the impact that TPD has on teachers’ and students’ learning (Penuel et al., 2007; Pianta et al., 2008; Desimone, 2009; Hill et al., 2013; Desimone and Garet, 2015; Gutierrez-Cobo et al., 2019; Kurtovic et al., 2019).

Desimone and Garet (2015) suggest five key features on which there is consensus that they make TPD effective: (a) content focus: activities that are focused on subject matter content and how students learn that content; (b) active learning: opportunities for teachers to observe, receive feedback, analyze student work, or make presentations, as opposed to passively listening to lectures; (c) coherence: content, goals, and activities that are consistent with the school curriculum and goals, teacher knowledge and beliefs, the needs of students, and school, district, and state reforms and policies; (d) sustained duration: TPD activities that are ongoing throughout the school year and include 20 h or more of contact time; and (e) collective participation: groups of teachers from the same grade, subject, or school participate in TPD activities together to build an interactive learning community (Desimone and Garet, 2015, p. 253).

In recent years, TPD research has focused on creating knowledge that contributes to teacher quality and effective teaching in a context in which students are increasingly diverse, guaranteeing both equitable learning opportunities and outcomes (Knight et al., 2015; Impedovo, 2016; Chatelier and Rudolph, 2018). The latest contributions are directed toward reconceptualizing high-quality teacher professional development, starting from a socially inclusive pedagogic work based on what is already known about the new conceptions of teaching and learning that are contributing to not leaving any students behind (Knight et al., 2015; Gale et al., 2017; Lampert et al., 2019).

In this context, TPD research has increased considerably and has focused on evaluating the impact that in-service TPD programs have on both teacher learning and student achievement in mathematics, language, literacy, reading, science, and arts from early childhood education onward (Downer et al., 2009; Higgins and Parsons, 2009; Brown and Weber, 2016; Caddle et al., 2016; De Naeghel et al., 2016; Jukes et al., 2017; Kutaka et al., 2017; Shernoff et al., 2017). Some of this research has further focused on the learning experiences that promote teachers with professional development programs that are based not only on best practices but also on practices that reflect their students’ sociocultural context (Brown and Weber, 2016). These practices also start from solidarity with families and local communities to guarantee professionally developed teachers who respond to their students’ needs (Zeichner et al., 2016; Lampert et al., 2019).

There is also a significant amount of literature on TPD regarding evidence-based approaches that promote interaction, dialogue, and reflection in the classroom, that achieve positive results regarding children’s literacy (Pianta and Hamre, 2009), and that create productive learning environments in classrooms (Hagelskamp et al., 2013). Within the framework of this research, some analyses pay attention to the need for TPD to be aligned with research on effective teacher professional development so that TPD has an impact on the self-efficacy of teachers and the improvement of student outcomes (McElearney et al., 2018).

Nevertheless, some contributions have provided relevant insight into this field from different perspectives and disciplines. Some of these contributions have been realized in qualitative case studies on the effectiveness of TPD in integrating interdisciplinary civic education into high school humanities courses (Barr et al., 2015).

Specifically, the TPD assessed by Barr and colleagues was focused on the development of workshops, in which teachers are engaged in reflective discussions on evidence-based approaches to teaching interdisciplinary historical case studies. This program’s assessment produced important evidence regarding the progress of teacher self-efficacy. This assessment also revealed important steps regarding student learning achievement, such as the building of historical thinking and civic dispositions, as well as the capacity to engage in relevant ethical reflections (Barr et al., 2015). Five elements of success were identified that could be integrated into other professional development programs: (1) active learning as an opportunity to be involved instead of passive learning as a mere attendee, (2) coherence between theory and practice, (3) connection to the demands placed on teachers, (4) ability to apply the knowledge gained in schools in which the teachers are involved, and (5) collective participation based on teachers’ involvement in reflective practices, in which evidence-based approaches to TPD and teaching are discussed (Barr et al., 2015). The last dimension has been widely explored as a successful component of TPD (Marques et al., 2016; Paula, 2018).

There is strong evidence on how the dialogue and joint reflection of teachers on pedagogical content improves their self-efficacy. Kiemer et al. (2018) analyzed the impact of a TPD program on productive classroom discourse and communication strategies on teacher practice. Ten teachers from science and mathematics classes from middle and high schools participated for a whole year in various theoretical seminars on productive classroom discourse and the scaffolding of student ideas. After the theoretical inputs, the teachers reflected together on how knowledge about high-quality discourse and active learning methods could enrich their classes. Approximately 2 weeks later, after the theoretical workshops, the teachers were recorded in their lessons in what has been called “dialogic videos.” Afterward, a selection of these videos was viewed by the teachers. Again, the teachers discussed these together, but this time, they placed their professional development in a realistic context. After participation in this TPD program, all teachers reported that they had changed their teaching practice. They began to use a discourse that motivated students to learn and participate in the classrooms. In turn, the students perceived their teachers as more competent in fostering a supportive context for students and in promoting a climate of motivation for learning.

Along these lines, other studies have explored the importance of including the active agency of teachers in their professional development as a mechanism to improve their self-efficacy (Pyhältö et al., 2015; Tam, 2015; Wanless et al., 2015; Ciampa and Gallagher, 2016; Liu et al., 2016). For instance, Liu et al. (2016) analyzed the impact of 6 years of the TPD program on building a self-sustainable and democratic community of practice. On several Saturdays during these school years, workshops were held that combined lectures, readings, and discussions on East Asian topics according to the Wisconsin K-12 Social Studies Content Standards. This study identified that ongoing teachers’ dialogue and reflection on the application of content in their classes not only improved their knowledge and skills to develop new ways of internationalizing their curricula and schools but also improved their ability to research, organize, and lead initiatives in their schools and communities.

Finland is one of the countries promoting TPD based on scientific evidence that has been shown to improve the self-efficacy of teachers and student learning. One of the TPD studies developed in Finland was carried out with a survey of all comprehensive schoolteachers. This study identified that one of the keys to an effective TPD was the promotion of dynamics that would facilitate the active participation of teachers in their professional development. The results indicate that effective TPD consists of several elements, including skills, efficacy beliefs, and motivational factors, which entail transforming one’s teaching practices, experiencing collective efficacy, constructing positive interdependency, appreciating mutual agreements, and using active strategies for help-seeking (Pyhältö et al., 2015).

Teachers’ professional development that is based on a collaborative inquiry is another approach that leads to effectiveness and that has an impact on teachers’ self-efficacy (Ciampa and Gallagher, 2016). This approach creates opportunities for teachers to become involved in building pedagogical knowledge together by means of a permanent dialogue through the following four stages: (1) identifying the problem, (2) collecting evidence, (3) analyzing evidence, (4) and reflecting, sharing, and celebrating the results. Ciampa and Gallagher (2016), in their qualitative case study with elementary (grade 8) and secondary (grade 9) literacy teachers who participated in a TPD program on the collaborative inquiry approach, identified that teachers improved their skills in understanding common student literacy learning needs and effective literacy instruction and assessment practices.

Furthermore, there is also evidence that in TPD programs that promote effective and active teachers’ involvement teachers not only improve their learning but also assume a responsibility for the professional growth of their colleagues, thus transforming their communities of practice into a workforce of teachers who are committed to creating successful schools (Tam, 2015).

Another effective TPD approach identified is the “responsive classroom approach” (Wanless et al., 2015). Attention is paid to the implementation of evidence-based interventions that are aimed at achieving safe, challenging, and joyful classrooms and schools by combining social and academic learning for all children. This approach stresses the importance of developing teachers’ emotional skills to manage classroom social relationships and encourage a proper climate in parallel with students’ academic achievement (Wanless et al., 2015).

However, evidence also exists that professional communities become spaces where productive learning to reach the aforementioned objectives is not commonly undertaken (Opfer and Pedder, 2011; Popp and Goldman, 2016). For this reason, the impact of professional development programs must be assessed according to teachers’ self-efficacy and their impact on improving student performance, and research must be conducted on the features of effective and ongoing professional development that promote a disposition in teachers toward a lifelong evidence-based learning (Knight et al., 2015).

The research question addressed in this study is as follows: Which are the impacts or benefits that teachers report as a consequence of their participation in the seminar “On the Shoulders of Giants”?

The data used in this research were derived from a questionnaire (see Supplementary Material) aiming at analyzing the aspects that motivate the participating teachers in the seminar “On the Shoulders of Giants” held in Valencia, as well as at analyzing the benefits of this participation. The questionnaire was distributed among preprimary, primary, and secondary teachers both at the end of the journey and through a digital platform. A total of 40 items were included in the questionnaire, organized into seven sections: context, the functioning of the seminar, satisfaction with the seminar, the usefulness of the seminar and empowerment, intention to continue attending the seminar, relationships, and sociodemographic information. The results presented in this article are related to the specific questions that focused on the teachers’ perceptions of how the readings and discussions in the seminars are useful for improving teachers’ self-efficacy and argumentation skills in their professional practice and how they are useful for improving students’ achievement. The questionnaire was designed ad hoc for implementation at a particular seminar session, in which it underwent pilot testing with a small number of participants to correct potential bias items. The questionnaire included multiple-choice items as well as items based on the use of a Likert scale ranging either from 1 (“totally disagree”) to 10 (“totally agree”) or from 1 (“minimum”) to 10 (“maximum”).

The seminar “On the Shoulders of Giants” was defined as a case study. Purposive sampling was used, asking teachers who attended the seminar “On the Shoulders of Giants” to participate voluntarily in the survey. A total of 69 preprimary, primary, and secondary teachers decided to participate. A total of 69.6% of the participants in the survey were women, whereas 30.4% were men (which is in line with the regular gender distribution of teachers in Spain). Half of the teachers were between 30 and 40 years old (51%), while 30.3% were older than 40 years old (between 41 and 50), and almost two teachers over 10 were “young” teachers with “limited” teaching experience (18.7%). The quantitative case study, therefore, aims to evaluate the distribution of the variables and the relationships between them. The study cannot be extrapolated to other cases because it is not a comparative study, but this fact does not limit or invalidate its results (Yin, 2018).

The questionnaire was distributed in paper format to all seminar attendees at the end of a Saturday meeting, as well as in digital format through a digital platform. Ethical procedures were presented to the participants. Researchers explained the objectives of the study, noting the potential risks of participating in the survey, the contact information for further questions about the project, and the explicit condition that participation is voluntary. An open space was set up for the participants to ask questions and resolve their doubts regarding the survey. Participants were also informed both during the seminar and on the digital platform that any data collected would be kept anonymous and confidential. Participants provided either oral or digital consent (agreeing to answer the questionnaire) to participate in the survey. All participants were informed about their right to leave the survey at any time and remove their data from the database. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Community of Researchers on Excellence for All (CREA).

A descriptive statistical analysis was conducted on the data collected from the survey to answer the research question. Additionally, multivariate analysis was conducted to explore potential associations among variables, drawing on the use of the correlation coefficient in the bilateral analysis. Several categorical analyses were established about teacher participation in the seminar and the learning and self-efficacy improvements examined. Drawing on the sets of questions comprising this questionnaire (contextualization, dynamics of the seminar, satisfaction with the seminar, seminar utility, and empowerment), the following three main statements framed the data analysis: (1) scientific knowledge leading to an educational improvement, (2) strengthening debate skills with colleagues, and (3) improving teaching practice and student learning. In terms of the validity of the content, a confirmatory analysis with experts was conducted. Regarding the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, a factorial analysis was conducted.

“On the Shoulders of Giants” is distinctive because it is based on reading and discussing scientific literature on evidence-based approaches to teaching and learning. We found a significant correlation between involvement in the seminar and the use of the scientific knowledge acquired (see Table 1). Spearman’s bivariate analysis revealed a high correlation between involvement (number of articles/books read) and the use of scientific knowledge.

According to the respondents of the survey, participating in the seminar provides them with access to other forums (seminars, conferences, etc.) that might help expose them to data, practices, and other sources of knowledge that they consider “very useful” for improving their practice. Checking other sources of evidence, participating in networks of professionals, and using scientific evidence as the main source of “evidence” appears to transform these teachers’ regular practices. The data suggest that these three variables are somehow associated with the practice of participating in the seminar (Table 1).

The abovementioned data indicate a clear increase in the use of scientific knowledge that is associated with attending the seminar. Attending the seminar greatly contributes to increasing the number of scientific books and journal articles read by the teachers (see Table 2 for a comparison of before and after the respondents’ participation in the seminar).

Furthermore, we found that for teachers involved in this seminar, the improvement in professional practice meant not only methodological improvements but also improvements in the learning outcomes of their students as well as improvements in the school and classroom climate (74.5%) and the effectiveness of the methodologies implemented (72%) (see Table 6).

Nearly 29% of the participants never read a scientific journal article on educational research and learning processes before attending this seminar. After becoming involved in the seminar, that practice was dramatically transformed: no one declared not reading any scientific articles or books. On the contrary, three out of four teachers participating in the survey claimed that they had read six articles/books or more (31.9% of participants said that they had read more than 20 articles or books). This is a significant transformation of teachers’ practices, especially because most of them come from a tradition of not reading scientific literature related to their professional activity. These findings also show how the participation in this professional development activity was a turning point for a large number of participating teachers regarding the use of scientific literature to understand current school problems, identify best solutions, and improve their practice.

Most of the teachers agreed that they acquired new scientific knowledge and that they corrected their pre-existing assumptions through the seminar readings (see Table 3). This finding is particularly relevant because unlike other fields of social action (such as health), many education professionals in Spain base their teaching strategies on popular beliefs or assumptions and not on evidence-based practices (Flecha, 2015).

By participating in the seminar, many teachers developed the ability to improve their practices using solid information about proven key elements of learning from fields such as psychology, pedagogy, and sociology. Moreover, when the teachers were asked whether discussing these readings during the seminar helps them strengthen their capacity for analysis and debate with other education professionals, 98.6% answered “yes”. This newly developed capacity for argumentation can be explained by the high rate of participants who use scientific knowledge to understand educational problems aimed to find the best solutions to overcome these problems (see Table 4).

The seminar became a space for teachers to network (Table 1) based on a discussion of selected articles and books and to collaborate to improve their practices.

The impact of the seminar on the improvement in teaching practice and student learning was found to be one of the primary benefits of participation in the seminar. However, this study further shows the real impact on the teachers’ professional practice. Figure 1 and Table 5 show that most of the teachers (74.2%) transferred their learning of evidence-based educational actions to their teaching practice.

In the questionnaire, teachers evaluated the impact of their training on student performance using a score between 1 and 10, where 1 represented the minimum and 10 represented the maximum. Most of the teachers responded with scores between 8 and 10, especially regarding learning (64.7%), attention (65.3%), and the capacity for reflection and debate (83.7%). Evidence of improving students’ achievement after implementing evidence-based educational actions was very relevant for teachers who participated in this study and played a key role in their continued interest in attending the seminar.