Edited by: Miguel Melendro, National University of Distance Education (UNED), Spain
Reviewed by: Paulo Delgado, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Portugal; Alejandro Pulgarin, University of Manizales, Colombia; Elias Manuel Said-Hung, Universidad Internacional De La Rioja, Spain
This article was submitted to Educational Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology
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In the transition to adulthood, sexuality and emotional relationships constitute one of the most important dimensions for the achievement of personal autonomy and emotional well-being. Despite advances in sex education, sexuality, and relationships remain conflictive areas in the development of young people. Inequalities between men and women, gender identities and sexual violence, along with the beliefs and expectations surrounding these issues, persist as handicaps to having a fulfilling relationship and sex life. At this stage, emotional well-being is also consolidated by one’s perception of sexuality and relationships from models learned in childhood, in which gender stereotypes and sexuality based on relationships of domination and discrimination persist. Therefore, we examined how the sexual beliefs and practices reported by young people correlate with their level of personal autonomy and responsibility in terms of risky behaviors and toxic relationships. The study shows the extent to which sexual beliefs and habits are linked to decision-making, personal development and social problems derived from conflictive relationships, affecting young people’s overall well-being. A questionnaire was developed based on the theoretical constructs of comprehensive sexuality and equality education (
The World Health Organization (WHO) describes sexual health as a state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being in relation to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination, and violence. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected, and fulfilled (
Sexual health is therefore a permanent experience of physical, psychological and sociocultural well-being. Such is the case that we can observe subjects’ level of sexual health based on their responsible sexual behaviors. The latter include not only safe sexual relations, but also sexual behaviors in which autonomy, maturity, honesty, respect, consent, protection, and the pursuit of well-being come into play.
It is currently argued that sexuality is a basic human function involving physiological, emotional, and cognitive factors and connected to other personal and psychological aspects such as well-being, health and quality of life. In this study, we understand sexual satisfaction as the level of pleasure, well-being, and adjustment observed during a sexual interaction (
Sexual satisfaction constitutes a human right and a key element of quality of life associated with a better state of physical and mental health (
Also, the relationship between sexual satisfaction and psychological variables, including body image and self-esteem, has been widely studied. In this regard, higher self-esteem has been found to be associated with lower body dissatisfaction (
Unawareness of the emotional, mental, and psychological aspects of sexual health is highly problematic. If young people are uninformed of the importance of these aspects and of sexual pleasure and how that pleasure can be achieved and maintained, they may, as evidenced by the findings of
The
In general, a sense of well-being is an indicator of quality of life that may be understood as the result of the perception of quality of life. In other words, well-being is an interpretation of quality of life based on subjective experience and environmental and personal filters (
The study of sexuality and its relationship with well-being has been a recurring research theme for decades (
Knowledge of and attitudes toward sexuality adopted as an individual matures are largely derived from what is transmitted by the different social-educational contexts to which the subject is exposed during his or her socialization process. On the other hand, the vast majority of studies have focused almost exclusively on the behavioral component of sexuality, such as types of sexual behavior, contraceptive use, risks, number of partners, etc. (
Scientific literature shows that young people adopt liberal, erotophilic attitudes toward sexuality, and especially toward what is more socially visible and acceptable, such as heterosexuality or coitus (
In line with the above, it appears that overall, young people continue to assign stereotypical roles to men and women in relation to their experience of sexuality. In this regard,
Several studies have found gender differences in terms of both behaviors and feelings around sexuality, where women seem more focused on emotional issues and men on sexual behaviors (
In this sense, many differences are rooted in the different socialization processes for men and women, which demonstrate the importance of considering sociocultural factors when analyzing such differences (
In addition, gender and the experience thereof, or of non-normative sexuality, appears as one of the main focuses of discrimination, especially in educational contexts (
At this time, sex education generally pivots on the coexistence of the moral-conservative model and the risk model (
The
Our initial hypothesis is that the sex education young people receive and the beliefs and sexual behaviors derived from it have an impact on their emotional well-being as individuals and in their social relationships. We start with the premise that, as indicated by WHO and UNESCO, sexuality is a part of and necessary for emotional well-being in youth, influencing aspects related to health, social bonds, and personal autonomy. In addition, we agree that sexuality develops and is in turn influenced by the perceptions that young people have of it, based on educational models on topics such as
Following the WHO’s reports we share evidence that sexuality remains a social taboo that, in most societies, prevents educational institutions from providing a comprehensive education from early childhood that would enable one to approach one’s first sexual relations with confidence, autonomy, and security. It is also observed that gender inequalities and the greater social vulnerability of girls persist as a problematic or risk factor in sexual relations. Taboos, preconceived ideas about what sex is and an incomplete sex education, or one limited to aspects concerning reproduction or health protection, have been identified. According to these reports, a heteronormative discourse persists that focuses mainly on genitality while excluding a positive, diverse view of sexuality that allows young adults to grow from their own sexual experiences confidently and autonomously.
The WHO and UNESCO indicate that sexuality affects young people’s emotional well-being because relationships can become problematic if sexual experiences generate personal conflict, insecurity or submission to social models that contradict a young person’s own identity, due to:
A lack of information and of a thorough, high-quality education.
Mental maps and distorted beliefs about sexuality.
Inappropriate or risky behaviors due to a lack of education, communication, and autonomy.
The (distorted) sexualization of society, which implies its genitalization, its masculinization (women as objects), the dichotomy between sexual and emotional relationships and the linkage of the latter to the stable partnership.
The sample focuses on the university population of two countries in Europe (Spain 26.3%; Portugal 20.5%) and two countries in Latin America (Brazil 35.3%; Argentina 17.9%), with a total of 579 respondents among university students in 2017. The following parameters were established for the representative study sample: sampling error of ±2.7 sigmas, confidence level of 95%. The questionnaire was completed by a larger number of women (male representation was 4.3%, an aspect that limited the interpretation of the results from a gender perspective and the explanatory nature of the sex variable (therefore the different weight of the sample does not allow for a gender analysis). The selection of this sample regarding its autonomy and emotional well-being linked to sexuality is defined by the great importance of this group, as future trainers and workers with children and teenagers since, whether or not explicitly, they will contribute through their practice to the sex education of the next generations. From a gender perspective, encompasses much more than biological sexual division. We have tried to show this in the dimensions studied, especially those relating to affective beliefs, behaviors, and relationships, and how gender identity and its expression is strongly linked to emotional and social well-being at this stage of life. Regarding age, 54.1% of the participants were in the under 25 age group and 45.9% were over the age of 25. The criteria used to define the study sample were: (a) the minimum range: over 18 years old, since they were university students. (b) Regarding the maximum strip: up to 30 years. Being the most unifying criterion in most countries, which in the case of Argentina (National Youth Directorate) and Brazil (National Secretary of Youth) would be 29 years and in the case of Spain and Portugal (EU) would be 30 years, as pointed out in the European Union Strategy for Youth 2019–2027. According to the IEO, an Organization for Ibero-American States, which also includes Spain and Portugal, the United Nations defined youth in 1985 between the ages of 15 and 24. However, according to the 2008 report, which came into force, the Ibero-American Convention on Youth Rights (CIDJ) came into force, it is noted that in Europe the age is up to 29–30 years (due to the prolongation of schooling and the delay of the age of formation of own families).
The study was carried out through an
Education received.
Sexual practices and habits.
Beliefs and expectations regarding sexuality.
Emotional relationships.
WHO’s categories define emotional well-being and mental health around sexuality within socio-cultural framework that influences each of the above dimensions in young people’s personal development, such as:
The social and cultural norms of the environment (beliefs, religion, and politics).
The sociopolitical context (human rights and legislation).
Gender or sociocultural inequalities (education level and gender).
Sexual function and psychosexual orientation.
Policies to prevent gender-based violence and aid its victims and to prevent and control the spread of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases.
For its part, the UNESCO defines sex education as a necessary resource backed by scientific evidence and aimed at promoting young people’s health and well-being. In this regard, emotional well-being arising from sex education would be founded on:
Comprehensive sex education backed by proven knowledge.
Development of a sex-positive attitude.
Safe sex practices and access to contraceptive methods.
Incorporation of the gender perspective.
Based on these premises, we configured the dimensions of analysis for the data collection instrument and the variables that represent each dimension studied. This allowed us to examine young people’s perceptions of each one in relation to the categories that define emotional well-being (WHO), as illustrated by the following list:
Dimension 1. Education sources: level and experience of sex education received. Associated variables:
Dimension 2. Habits: sexual behaviors and practices. Associated variables:
Dimension 3. Motivations: expectations of sexual relations. Associated variables:
Dimension 4. Sexual and gender identity concept: perception of sexual diversity. Associated variables:
Dimension. 5. Values regarding sexuality. Beliefs and values regarding sexuality.
Associated variables:
First, a descriptive analysis was conducted to calculate the contrast of means in order to describe the behavior of each dimension’s variables in relation to the differentiating variables based on sex, age group, and continent. After this descriptive analysis, we performed the correlation analysis (Pearson’s
After applying the contrast of means across all dimensions and their variables, and with age and continent serving as differentiating variables of the mean, the results were statistically significant to our study. The results exhibit significance in all variables and all cases with regards to differences by age group and by continent.
In particular, all categories associated with the Education dimension have a perfect result and, as illustrated in
Contrast of means – sex education sources.
Academic sex education | <25 | 1.78 | 0.000 | Eu | 1.78 | 0.000 |
>25 | 1.45 | Am | 1.39 | |||
Contribution of sex education to personal development | <25 | 1.50 | 0.008 | Eu | 1.47 | 0.000 |
>25 | 1.64 | Am | 1.77 | |||
Formal sex education versus informal | <25 | 1.63 | 0.004 | Eu | 1.62 | 0.000 |
>25 | 1.76 | Am | 1.83 |
In terms of the sexual habits reported by the young people surveyed, statistical significance was found based on age group, the statistically significant variables were 5, 6, 7, and 8:
We found perfect significance levels in relation to age groups, we find important data in relation to variables 15 and 17:
In the contrast of means, we find relevant results with perfect significance levels when differentiating by continent in variables 19 and 20:
The contrast of means yields relevant results when differentiating by continent in variables 28, 29, and 37:
We applied Pearson’s correlation analysis to determine the strength of the relationship between the described variables and the study dimensions. First, the results yielded a strong positive correlation between formal sex education versus informal and the contribution of sex education to personal development (
Correlations for the education dimension.
Contribution of sex education to personal development | Pearson correlation | 0.105 | −0.170 | 0.417 |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.043 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
270 | 545 | 545 |
When the correlation between the variables comprising dimension 2 (
Correlations for the habits dimension.
No. of partners | Pearson correlation | 0.497 | 0.266 | 0.235 | 0.224 |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
289 | 579 | 579 | 579 | ||
Orgasm in sex |
Pearson correlation | −0.066 | 0.161 | 0.293 | |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.133 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||
289 | 579 | 579 |
Correlations for the motivations dimension.
Partner’s attractiveness | Pearson correlation | −0.146 | 0.094 |
Significance (unilateral) | 0.000 | 0.012 | |
579 | 579 | ||
Partner’s pleasure | Pearson correlation | 0.404 | −0.200 |
Significance (unilateral) | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
579 | 579 |
In dimension 4 (
Correlations for the sexual and gender identity concepts.
Religion | Pearson correlation | 0.251 | 0.230 | 0.055 | −0.017 | 0.142 |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.035 | 0.049 | 0.347 | 0.452 | 0.155 | |
53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | ||
Lesbian concept | Pearson correlation | −0.036 | 0.781 | −0.163 | 0.166 | 0.047 |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.354 | 0.000 | 0.044 | 0.042 | 0.314 | |
110 | 110 | 110 | 110 | 110 |
Finally, in
Correlations for the beliefs and values about sexuality dimension.
Permissiveness toward occasional promiscuity | Pearson correlation | 0.230 | 0.171 | −0.291 | 0.080 | 0.245 |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.027 | 0.000 | |
Premarital sex | Pearson correlation | −0.001 | −0.181 | 0.212 | 0.153 | |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.486 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||
Permissiveness prostitution | Pearson correlation | −0.008 | −0.181 | −0.207 | −0.210 | |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.423 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||
Use of erotic materials | Pearson correlation | −0.106 | 0.212 | −0.207 | 0.148 | |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.005 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||
Sex = love | Pearson correlation | 0.222 | 0.153 | −0.210 | 0.148 | |
Significance (one-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
After applying the factor analysis to each dimension to establish the possible discourses that appear in the predictive rotation of the relationship between each dimension’s variables (concerning potential differences based on age, country, and continent), statistically significant data was obtained.
As observed in
Factor analysis education dimension.
Total matrix | 0.489 |
≤25 | 0.476 |
>25 | 0.492 |
Spain | 0.781 |
Portugal | 0.512 |
Brazil | 0.439 |
Argentina | 0.525 |
Europe | 0.796 |
Ibero-America | 0.564 |
If we focus on the second dimension,
Factor analysis habits dimension.
Total matrix | 0.525 |
≤25 | 0.406 |
>25 | 0.527 |
Spain | 0.421 |
Portugal | 0.674 |
Brazil | 0.696 |
Argentina | 0.655 |
Europe | 0.415 |
Ibero-America | 0.651 |
However, in the case of dimension 3,
Factor analysis motivations dimension.
Total matrix | 0.466 |
≤25 | 0.645 |
>25 | 0.641 |
Spain | 0.472 |
Portugal | 0.736 |
Brazil | 0.573 |
Argentina | 0.750 |
Europe | 0.472 |
Ibero-America | 0.647 |
Regarding dimension 4,
Factor analysis gender and sexuality concept.
Total matrix | 0.621 |
≤25 | 0.629 |
>25 | 0.633 |
Spain | 0.521 |
Portugal | 0.658 |
Brazil | 0.632 |
Argentina | 0.697 |
Europe | 0.627 |
Ibero-America | 0.633 |
Finally, when we look at
Factor analysis values – beliefs dimension.
Total matrix | 0.466 |
≤25 | 0.474 |
>25 | 0.669 |
Spain | 0.479 |
Portugal | 0.658 |
Brazil | 0.531 |
Argentina | 0.732 |
Europe | 0.471 |
Ibero-America | 0.525 |
The component that appears in the total matrix introduces variables 1, 2, and 3,
Regarding sexual habits, the total matrix shows the three components as clearly differentiated. The first with respect to variables 5, 7, and 6:
In this dimension, the differences based on age should be noted: while respondents under the age of 25 emphasize variables 5, 7, 6, and 4 (
When comparing countries, the most important components in Portugal and Spain were variables 5, 7, 4, and 6 (
Regarding habits, the total matrix exhibits a single component with variables 14, 13, 17, and 12 (
In the total matrix, we find four components: the first with
Looking at ages, it is important to note that younger respondents also emphasize variables 20 and 19,
All countries also coincide with
The values of the total matrix exhibit two clear components. The first one corresponds to variables 34, 33, 31, and 37 (
In the two age groups, those under the age of 25 exhibited in the first component more permissiveness toward occasional promiscuity and a stronger association of sexuality with pleasure and love, but not with reproduction. However, in this regard, the older group emphasized promiscuity as problematic and greater sexual activity in men. Secondly, the variables relating to the use of erotic toys, sex with third parties, and premarital relations (variables 34, 27, and 31) appeared as significant in both groups.
In terms of responses by country, the first component is the acceptance of casual relations with other people (variable 27) and a higher appreciation of sex associated with love (variable 35) but not reproduction. Prostitution is not viewed negatively in any country, and permissiveness toward its practice is observed in all of them. There is a positive assessment of sexual diversity (variable 36), although it appears in the third or fourth component in all of them. In both Spain and Portugal, the first component corresponds to permissiveness toward casual relations and the link between sex and love, which is the third component in Brazil and Argentina, which value the use of erotic materials (variable 34 in Brazil), the masculinization of sexuality (variable 38), and the problem of promiscuity (variable 29) as the first component.
Our study shows the importance and assessment of the sex education received by the young people we surveyed in four countries. In all cases, this instruction was provided mainly in secondary school and considered significant for personal development. It is relevant that when asked about the value of academic education versus information/learning obtained in informal contexts, the respondents clearly placed more value on the latter from the perspective of well-being and development, and this was especially the case of those under the age of 25. As the
In general, concerning sexual behaviors and habits, the results reveal a clear link between sexuality and the pursuit of pleasure and personal satisfaction in terms of the frequency of sexual relations and the number of partners; these aspects are more relevant than those linked to reproduction or stable relationships. Orgasm and autoerotism were key references in the minds of young people in this dimension. Masturbation appears as a habitual and recognized practice, although, as we will see in dimension 5 concerning values and beliefs about sexuality, it is viewed less positively. It should also be noted that prevention or contraceptive use was not a central or relevant theme for sexual habits, although it was more marked for those under the age of 25. Although one of the factors of emotional well-being around sexuality, according to the WHO, concerns prevention, including both safe sex and contraceptive use, the study reveals that risky habits persist in the youth population surveyed. This is linked to sexuality in which the frequency of sexual intercourse and the number of partners prevail over safety in the pursuit of satisfaction. In this regard, when observed in detail, there are some clear differences in sexual habits among the countries in our study, reflected in both the component and correlation tests: while in Portugal and Spain, frequency and number of partners are key aspects of sexual behavior, in Brazil and Argentina, relations with third parties and homosexual relations stand out first, although religion and, to a lesser extent, the age of first sexual relations have a significant correlation with perceived sexual behaviors. In this regard, the study showed that most young people have their first sexual experiences between the ages of 15 and 18. Following the guidelines of the
According to the results of our study, in terms of motivations, the most emphasized aspects concern to one’s own satisfaction and pleasure and that of one’s partner, together with emotional bonds, and to a lesser degree, reproduction, which correlates negatively with sexual satisfaction. In this sense, emotional factors were more important to women, a fact that coincides with the results of several recent studies (
In different countries, emotional involvement appears as a second component to shared pleasure with one’s partner and the importance of giving pleasure in the case of women. Own orgasm was equally important for all age groups, yet more significant in those under the age of 25. It should be noted that the attractiveness of one’s partner did stand out more as a motivation for sexual relations in countries such as Brazil and Argentina. Motivations toward sexuality reveal the extent to which young people perceive sexual function as an important dimension of their relationships. In this regard, one of the categories established by the WHO for young people’s emotional well-being around sexuality links motivations to the expectations learned in the social and community context (
The results of the questionnaire indicate that the perception of sexuality and emotional-sexual diversity and gender identity is quite varied, containing some heteronormative biases. Although sexual diversity is accepted, it is barely represented as a value in one’s own sexual experience. Young people adopt liberal attitudes toward sexuality and especially toward what is more socially visible and acceptable (
Also noteworthy is the prevalence of low-intensity sexism, given that the variables related to gender inequalities did not have a prevalent place among women in any of the countries analyzed, appearing only as a secondary component in the tests performed. The fact that the study also reveals a certain degree of permissiveness toward prostitution indicates that young women are more vulnerable than men in their relationships, which can impact their health, safety, and personal well-being. This is a sign of the emergence of new scenarios of vulnerability for young people in increasingly globalized societies, with gender violence and sexual exploitation as some of their most worrisome manifestations (
Finally, in terms of young people’s beliefs about sexuality, the results of this study indicate that sexuality is far more associated with pleasure and love than with reproduction. In modern society, according to
At the same time, as pleasure is pursued, there is a relaxation of the norms of sexual exclusiveness between partners sexual exclusiveness here has a role in the relationship to the degree to which the partners mutually deem it desirable or essential (
Another noteworthy aspect of the results is the relevance of masturbation: young people report it as a habitual practice, although it appears undervalued. This perspective is perhaps still conditioned by orthodox religious positions and traditional cultural constraints that associate it with multiple negative connotations (
In conclusion, our findings point to the need to expand young people’s knowledge and awareness of the complexity of sexuality and sexual health, linking it to emotional and relational aspects. It is necessary to implement CSE, as recommended in the guidelines of the
A comprehensive, complex and pluralistic vision of sexuality, as reflected in the baseline categories of the WHO and UNESCO in this study, would mean the integration of all these aspects into sexual experiences. This would result in a higher level of emotional well-being in young people by encouraging them to explore sexuality in a way less conditioned by the sociocultural parameters still in force. According to the
The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.
Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written, informed consent was inferred through the completion of the questionnaire.
All the authors of this article have made an equal contribution to its completion and to the research process: literature review, methodological and instrument design, field work, analysis, and discussion of the results.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
We would like to thank the faculty and students of the universities that collaborated on this study: GIES Group in the School of Social Sciences and the Schools of Education of Toledo and Ciudad Real at University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) and especially Dr. María Teresa Bejarano Franco; Institute of Education – IE and the Center for Environmental Education, Sciences and Math (Ceamecim), Federal University of Rio Grande – FURG. Superior School of Education (Coimbra, Portugal) and the Department of Education at University of Aveiro, Portugal; Department of Psychology and Pedagogical Sciences at CAECE University, Buenos Aires. We would also like to express our appreciation to Dr. Inmaculada Herranz Aguayo of the School of Social Sciences at University of Castilla-La Mancha.