Edited by: Bianca P. Acevedo, University of California, Santa Barbara, United States
Reviewed by: Hayley Fisher, The University of Sydney, Australia; Emanuela Furfaro, University of California, Davis, United States
This article was submitted to Personality and Social Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology
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This study investigates how individuals’ life satisfaction and depression are affected by the dissolution of a steady non-cohabiting intimate relationship. Previous studies have focused more on the consequences of divorce and less on the influence of non-cohabiting relationships on the well-being of the individual. The data for this study were taken from pairfam, a large-scale German panel survey, and were used to estimate fixed-effects panel regression models and impact functions to identify the overall effect of dissolution and trajectories after separation. The study sample comprised 2,631 individuals who were observed over the course of 11,219 partnership years. Based on the results of this study, three main findings were reported. First, the dissolution of a non-cohabiting relationship led to a significant decline in mental health and life satisfaction. Second, the trajectories after dissolution suggest that the decline was only temporary, showing readjustment after 1 year. Third, gender differences were identified, suggesting worse consequences for men who experienced a significant decline in both dimensions and did not readjust in life satisfaction until several years after the dissolution. For women, decreases were only found for life satisfaction, but quick readjustments were observed.
The dissolution of an intimate relationship is one of the most stressful life-course events (
This study focuses on the dissolution of living apart together or non-cohabiting intimate relationships. Cross-sectional data had indicated that the prevalence rates of couples living in separate households ranged from approximately 6 to 10% in Australia (
Being in an intimate relationship is associated with benefits for psychological and physiological health and well-being. A romantic partner is expected to provide resources that enhance well-being, including companionship, social and emotional support, love, and sexual involvement (
The loss of factors promoting relationship-related health and well-being as a consequence of dissolution can negatively affect individuals’ health and well-being (
This paper investigates how individuals’ life satisfaction and mental health are affected by the dissolution of a non-cohabiting relationship. It contributes to the literature in the following three ways. First, although previous studies often focus on cohabiting and marital relationships, several findings from non-cohabiting dating relationships suggested increases in depression, sadness, and anger after a breakup (
The following analyses are based on waves 2–11 (2009/10–2018/19) of the Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam;
Respondents in a steady non-cohabiting relationship were identified by answering the following survey questions: (1) “Do you have a steady relationship at the moment?” and (2) “Do you live together with this partner in the same dwelling?” To analyze the effects of relationship dissolution on life satisfaction and mental health, all periods of being in a non-cohabiting relationship were considered. To identify partnership dissolutions, pairfam used an innovative type of an event history calendar covering the period between the previous and current survey interview (
Descriptive data.
Overall | Women | Men | |
---|---|---|---|
Depression (1–4) | 1.79 | 1.84 | 1.73 |
Life satisfaction (0–10) | 7.53 | 7.46 | 7.61 |
Unemployed | 6.03% | 6.11% | 5.94% |
Education finished | 26.91% | 27.69% | 26.09% |
Having children | 1.94% | 2.67% | 1.18% |
Aged 18–24 | 49.55% | 49.64% | 49.45% |
Aged 25–29 | 22.03% | 19.49% | 24.67% |
Aged 30–35 | 13.01% | 12.68% | 13.36% |
Aged 36–41 | 8.06% | 9.08% | 6.99% |
Aged 42–47 | 7.35% | 9.11% | 5.52% |
An event dummy was created to detect the overall effects of the dissolution of a non-cohabiting relationship with the following values: 0 = no dissolution and 1 = dissolution. To investigate whether changes due to dissolution are only short term or permanent, the event dummy was more differentiated and combined with the time since dissolution. This new event-centered variable captures the year of the end of the relationship. Moreover, the following years were marked, resulting in a variable with the following values: 1 = year of the dissolution; 2 = 1 year after the dissolution; 3 = 2 years after the dissolution; and 4 = 3 or more years after the dissolution. The reference category 0 includes all person-years during the relationship before the dissolution occurred.
Life satisfaction was measured using the following question: “All in all, how satisfied are you with your life at the moment?” The answers ranged from 0 (“very dissatisfied”) to 10 (“very satisfied”). The mean value over all the observation periods was 7.53 (
Mental health was measured as levels of depression using the State-Trait-Depression Scale (10 items; STDS Form Y-2;
Because fixed-effects models were used for the statistical analyses (see below), time-constant variables were unnecessary. The controls were time varying, including being unemployed, in education, and having children, as well as age intervals (18–23; 24–29; 30–35; 36–41; and 42–47). These variables are relevant for well-being and mental health and are related to the dissolution of relationships (
Fixed-effects panel regression models were used to investigate the effects of relationship dissolution on life satisfaction and mental health. Standard between regressions that model the effect of divorce/dissolution on well-being and health may be biased because it is impossible to control for all relevant potential confounders, whether observed or unobserved (
The results of several fixed-effects panel regression models are presented separately below to identify outcomes in mental health and life satisfaction. At first, the overall effects of the dissolution of a non-cohabiting relationship are presented separately for men and women. Then, results from the fixed-effects impact functions are presented in graphic form to show the trajectories for both outcomes after the end of the intimate relationship.
Beginning with changes in individuals’ depression,
Fixed-effects panel regression for dissolution on depression separated by sex.
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Overall | Men | Women | |
Dissolution | 0.0350 |
0.0560 |
0.0120 |
(0.0121) | (0.0162) | (0.0180) | |
Unemployed | 0.108 |
0.116 |
0.101 |
(0.0236) | (0.0315) | (0.0351) | |
Completed education | 0.0287 |
0.0216 | 0.0337 |
(0.0125) | (0.0172) | (0.0179) | |
Having children | 0.0365 | 0.0968 | −0.0105 |
(0.0424) | (0.0680) | (0.0545) | |
Aged 24–29 | 0.00936 | 0.0458 |
−0.0352 |
(0.0187) | (0.0251) | (0.0277) | |
Aged 30–35 | 0.0231 | 0.0667 |
−0.0255 |
(0.0312) | (0.0400) | (0.0485) | |
Aged 36–41 | 0.00833 | 1.75e − 05 | 0.00952 |
(0.0489) | (0.0629) | (0.0746) | |
Aged 42–47 | −0.0285 | −0.0639 | −0.0167 |
(0.0590) | (0.0807) | (0.0876) | |
Constant | 1.638 |
1.603 |
1.670 |
(0.0208) | (0.0280) | (0.0310) | |
Periods controlled | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Number of periods | 11,219 | 5,492 | 5,727 |
Number of persons | 2,631 | 1,266 | 1,365 |
Number of partnerships | 3,206 | 1,540 | 1,666 |
Number of events | 1,609 | 837 | 772 |
Rwithin | 0.031 | 0.043 | 0.028 |
p < 0.1;
Fixed-effects panel regression impact functions for changes in depression separated by sex. Results reveal the changes in depression after relationship dissolution compared to average levels of depression before the dissolution; the value 0 on the x-axis marks the first observation point immediately after dissolution; the y-axis shows unstandardized regression coefficients from fixed-effects panel regression impact functions with 95% CI and panel robust standard errors; and data: pairfam waves 2–11; own calculation.
Fixed-effects panel regression for dissolution on life satisfaction separated by sex.
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
Overall | Men | Women | |
Dissolution | −0.261 |
−0.376 |
−0.139 |
(0.0416) | (0.0577) | (0.0607) | |
Unemployed | −0.594 |
−0.675 |
−0.520 |
(0.0921) | (0.118) | (0.143) | |
Completed education | −0.00113 | −0.0416 | 0.0385 |
(0.0439) | (0.0618) | (0.0622) | |
Having children | −0.176 | −0.120 | −0.160 |
(0.209) | (0.267) | (0.292) | |
Aged 24–29 | −0.0241 | −0.0237 | −0.00584 |
(0.0645) | (0.0909) | (0.0917) | |
Aged 30–35 | −0.0675 | −0.141 | 0.0255 |
(0.114) | (0.156) | (0.167) | |
Aged 36–41 | −0.226 | 0.203 | −0.571 |
(0.217) | (0.292) | (0.308) | |
Aged 42–47 | −0.0304 | 0.342 | −0.349 |
(0.253) | (0.352) | (0.354) | |
Constant | 7.998 |
7.948 |
8.064 |
(0.0728) | (0.0973) | (0.109) | |
Periods controlled | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Number of periods | 11,219 | 5,492 | 5,727 |
Number of persons | 2,631 | 1,266 | 1,365 |
Number of partnerships | 3,206 | 1,540 | 1,666 |
Number of events | 1,609 | 837 | 772 |
Rwithin | 0.034 | 0.051 | 0.027 |
Fixed-effects panel regression impact functions for changes in life satisfaction separated by sex. Results reveal the changes in life satisfaction after relationship dissolution compared to average levels of life satisfaction before the dissolution; the value 0 on the x-axis marks the first observation point immediately after dissolution; the y-axis shows unstandardized regression coefficients from fixed-effects panel regression impact functions with 95% CI and panel robust standard errors; and data: pairfam waves 2–11; own calculation.
Having a romantic partner and an intimate relationship have a favorable effect on the individual’s mental health and subjective well-being. Romantic partners benefit from resources that enhance health and well-being, such as companionship, social and emotional support, love, and sexual involvement. This study investigated the consequences of relationship dissolution of steady non-cohabiting relationships on the individuals’ life satisfaction and mental health. Losing the potential benefits from being in an intimate relationship because of separation is associated with a decline in psychological and subjective well-being. Using large-scale panel data from Germany, the overall effects of dissolution on life satisfaction and depression were estimated. The trajectories of the outcomes following the end of the relationship were modeled and analyzed separately for men and women. The use of fixed-effects panel regression models allowed to estimate individuals’ within-variation to be assessed prior to and after the end of their intimate relationships.
The results revealed three main findings. First, the dissolution of a non-cohabiting relationship led to a significant decline in the individuals’ mental health and life satisfaction. The respondents reported higher levels of depression and lower life satisfaction after the end of their partnerships relative to pre-dissolution levels. Most studies had focused more on the negative outcomes of divorce from marriage and less on intimate couples who live in separate households (
Second, drawing on competing assumptions from crisis and chronic strain models, the results of this study suggest that a decline in mental health and life satisfaction should be only temporary. Research on the dissolution of marriage showed a similar pattern for adjustment, confirming the assumption of dissolution as a temporary crisis (
Third, gender differences in relation to the outcomes and their pathways after dissolution were observed. Although the overall effects for depression and life satisfaction were significant, separate models showed no significant dissolution effects for women’s depression. Only men reported significantly higher levels of depression after the end of their partnerships. Usually, a decline in life satisfaction and an increase in depression adjust over time, but men were found to be more affected in the long term than women. In the present study, men’s life satisfaction declined and did not adjust after the end of a non-cohabiting intimate relationship. Even 3 years after the separation, the levels of life satisfaction were significantly lower than the pre-dissolution values. Studies on divorce have suggested that men are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of divorce than women (
This study is a step further in understanding the consequences of the dissolution of non-cohabiting partnerships on individuals’ mental health and well-being. The results showed similar patterns in adjustment and gender differences to the effects of divorce. Thus, considering couples who do not live in the same household is important in understanding the individuals’ trajectories of well-being. However, this study has several limitations. First, the sample is relatively young, with most individuals under the age of 30. Previous research had shown that non-cohabitating relationships are heterogeneous and relatively ambiguous depending on the individuals’ life-course position (
Potential mediators were not considered in the investigation of further differences in the trajectories of mental health and life satisfaction, except for gender differences. For example, the effects of dissolution may differ for those who initiated the separation. Moreover, the individuals’ partnership history may play an important role because the effects of dissolution may be different in the case of a first-ever or higher-order separation. Studies on divorce had emphasized the role of children as a mediator in dissolution outcomes. Individuals with children have been found to experience a sharper decline in life satisfaction than childless men and women (
Furthermore, although the results suggest similar patterns of dissolution effects to those observed after the end of a marriage, no direct comparison has been tested. Future studies should estimate and compare dissolutions from different types of relationships to compare temporal patterns. Previous findings suggest that individuals anticipate upcoming major life events (
Publicly available datasets were analyzed in this study. This data can be found at the German Family Panel (pairfam). GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA5678 Data file Version 12.0.0,
The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.
This research is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)—Project number 165713635—Beziehungs- und Familienentwicklungspanel (pairfam).
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
This paper uses data from the German Family Panel,