The employment of information and communication technologies (ICT) by the government to promote the efficient delivery of services to businesses and the general public is termed e-government (Andersen and Henriksen, 2006; Almarabeh, 2011; Guo, 2011). The major aim of e-government is to enable the provision of services virtually and to make the life of citizens more comfortable and better (Dwivedi et al., 2012; Ramli, 2017). The concept of e-government has been occasioned due to the difficulties inherent in the traditional delivery of government services, and thus its modernization through ICT is the far better option for government. E-government benefits include easy use of public services, higher accessibility, inclusivity and participation, privacy, and confidentiality to its stakeholders (Rowley, 2011; Meiyanti et al., 2018). For instance, e-government, through the provision of detailed tourist attractions, facilities, and map information for easy location of tourist destinations, can be used to promote tourism (Dewi et al., 2022). Equally, e-government can be instrumental in the design of urban-based smart governance systems to drive the developmental goals of local governments (Hardi and Gohwong, 2020).

Contingent on the manner of the services provided, e-government services may be grouped into Government-to-Citizens (G2C), Citizens-to-Government (C2G), Government-to-Business (G2B), Business-to-Government (B2G), Government-to-Employee (G2E), and Government-to-Government (G2G). The G2C/C2G e-government services ensure the provision of online services and enhance the exchange of information between people and government and vice-visa (Guo, 2011; Meiyanti et al., 2018). On other hand, the G2B/B2G nature of e-government seeks to promote electronic transactions and interactions between business entities and government bodies in terms of e-procurement, the electronic market for government business, and the execution of tenders virtually (Guo, 2011; Meiyanti et al., 2018). Also, the G2E forms of e-government are to transform the internal managerial and communication interaction to create and implement a paperless system (e-office) while the G2G e-government seeks to promote better interaction and information sharing among government offices from the district, municipal, regional, and national levels of government administration system (Guo, 2011; Meiyanti et al., 2018). All these dimensions/forms of e-government illustrate the broader role of government as it attempts to meet the various stakeholders' expectations of public service delivery and reforms needed within government administration systems.

Despite the advantages connected with the execution of e-government, there are however some major challenges that government and policymakers face in the operation of e-government. These include finance and budgeting, digital culture, managerial issues, IT/ICT infrastructure, human resources/skills, policy regulations, and laws (Figure 1) (Wang and Hou, 2010; Abdelsalam et al., 2012; Abdullah et al., 2013; Meiyanti et al., 2018).

Public value is described as the expectations relating to the delivery of government public services from stakeholders such as citizens, policymakers, civil servants, and tax-payers (Moore, 1995; Castelnovo, 2013). It is vital since, in the use of technology, the value to be obtained from its utilization will influence its adoption (Bannister and Connolly, 2014; Sufna and Fernando, 2020). It has been elaborated that to comprehend the value of e-government, a corresponding comprehension of how the public sector/government entities work is vital (Twizeyimana and Andersson, 2019; Schiff et al., 2021). This is because although both private and public sector organizations offer public services to the people, the modes and underlying concepts/principles vary (Twizeyimana and Andersson, 2019; Brown, 2021). The private sector entities provide services to enhance their profit margins but in the domain of the public sector core principle, government or public entities provide services without necessarily increasing or making a profit (Twizeyimana and Andersson, 2019). Conversely, public sector institutions are rather guided by the major principle of “public value” (Twizeyimana and Andersson, 2019) that is generated by their constituents through the services they offer. A government's key duty is to add value to the people and society at large and this is done through services, laws, regulations, and dedicated policy actions of government (Hui and Hayllar, 2010; Pardo et al., 2021) such as e-government.

Also, the generation of public value should be the primary objective of government institutions since it is through the value that is created that government institutions will fulfill the aspirations of its stakeholders (Jørgensen and Bozeman, 2007; Harrison et al., 2012). The notion of public value is considered as a transformative tool to handle/solve the dynamic social-political influence of information technology on the public/government institutions (Cordella and Bonina, 2012). It has been emphasized that the effect of e-government on public administration effectiveness can best be demonstrated through the public value generated for citizens and the general public (Castelnovo and Simonetta, 2008).

Pubic value has three dimensions. The first dimension has to do with the public value generated through the provision of the high-quality standard of public services and it is driven by issues such as availability, satisfaction, perceived relevance of services, and cost (Kearns, 2004). The second dimension of public value concerns obtaining a certain quality of life outcomes such as better health care, poverty reduction, and reduced environmental pollution (Kearns, 2004). The last element of public value concerns the critical concept of trust in government and its public sector organizations and this concept of trust is vital in influencing the general public to participate and agree to the actions of the government (Kearns, 2004). When the concept of public value is applied to e-government, it provides the following basic criteria from which e-government-specific public value can be understood: the delivery of services that are utilized broadly, higher levels of satisfaction of services provided, improved information, superior accessibility to users, provision of relevant services, cost reduction in accessing services, improved delivery outcomes and enhanced trust interactions between citizens and government entities (Kearns, 2004).

Furthermore, Karunasena et al. (2011) identified four sources of public value generation via e-government and these are supply of services, accomplishment of goals, expansion of confidence, and operating an effective public sector organization. These four foundations of e-government public value construction are depicted in Figure 2.

Apart from these four sources of value creation, other studies have proposed six dimensions of public value of e-government which are inclusive of some of the factors identified by Karunasena et al. (2011). These six dimensions are enhanced government services, better-quality organizational effectiveness, open government capabilities, enriched virtuous behavior and competence, enhanced confidence in management (government), and developed social value and welfare (Twizeyimana and Andersson, 2019). The dimensions of the public value of e-government which include the four sources (Figure 2) of the public value of e-government are described in Table 1.

The quality of information generated on e-government systems is critical to determining the value that the public attaches to e-government. Information quality can be understood through people's beliefs concerning the value of information availability (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Rachmawati, 2019). The main features of quality of information are precision, accuracy, timeliness, and relevance (Wangpipatwong et al., 2005; Gorla et al., 2010). Information accuracy has to do with the veracity of the information provided on e-government sites while timeliness is the degree to which the services (information) delivered are current and updated (Wangpipatwong et al., 2005). The relevance of information is the extent to which the information delivered meets the expectations of the users while information precision indicates that the provided information is presented in a manner that is easy to read and comprehend (Wangpipatwong et al., 2005; Papadomichelaki and Mentzas, 2009; Janita and Miranda, 2018). The quality of the information provided via the e-government system must be detailed and comprehensive to adequately meet the service expectations of citizens (Gorla et al., 2010; Karunasena and Deng, 2012). E-government services that achieve these four dimensions of information quality will ultimately impact the public value of e-government. Past scholarships have indicated that the quality of information has a direct impact on the public value of e-government and behavioral adoption (Elenezi et al., 2017; Nulhusna et al., 2017; Almaiah and Nasereddin, 2020). H1 was hence projected.

E-government development and implementation are instrumental in ensuring the effectiveness of public service delivery parameters (Karunasena and Deng, 2012). The public value of e-government can be better measured by people's sensitivities regarding the value of the two-way interactions (communications) that empower full real-time interaction between users and government (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Chohan et al., 2020). These include transactional e-government facilities like the payment of government/public services online, completing and submitting application forms virtually, and searching for archival information and data (Torres et al., 2005a,b; Filgueiras et al., 2019). The abundantly functional use of transactional e-government that can improve the public delivery parameters can drive the public value of e-government. The service delivery parameters have been determined to influence positively the public value of e-government (Karunasena and Deng, 2012). Consequently, H2 was proposed.

User orientation relates to a citizen-centered approach and development of e-government services (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Liang et al., 2019) that meets the aspirations and desires of the general public. The adoption of a citizen-centered attitude to e-government development can ensure the effective delivery of e-government services (Chang et al., 2009; Yotawut, 2018). The user orientation dimensions could include issues such as the development of user-friendly e-government features and the presentation of information that is concise, comprehensive, and detailed (Papadomichelaki and Mentzas, 2009). E-government that conforms to the expected user characteristics and needs will enhance its public value. The direct influence of user orientation on the public value of e-government has been statistically proven by previous studies (Karunasena and Deng, 2012). Accordingly, H3 was proposed.

One of the crucial features that influences the implementation of e-government is the ability to enhance efficiency not only for government service provision but also for government sector organizations. For instance, the efficiency in e-government can be understood through organizational efficiency, responsiveness, accountability, and openness (Karunasena and Deng, 2010). Organizational efficiency, as a result of e-government, can lead to reducing costs and better utilization of public sector resources that optimizes ICT infrastructure use, re-structuring of government functions, and well-trained public sector staff (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Nabafu and Maiga, 2012). E-government development to provide higher efficiency will influence the citizen's public value of e-government. In recent literature, it has been revealed that efficiency has a direct significant impact on the public value of e-government (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Deng et al., 2018b). Consequently, H4 was projected.

The lack of transparency in government dealings is a fundamental reason for introducing e-government as a tool to make government more open and accountable. The concept of transparency in public organizations is desirable, fostered, and empowered by the emergence of e-government and computing technologies (Bannister and Connolly, 2011). Openness has to do with transparency and accountability of services, especially in terms of making decisions, processes, and procedures as well as public information (budgets and expenditure) readily available to citizens (Pina et al., 2010; Milić et al., 2018). According to Karunasena and Deng (2010), these are key indicators of openness. Perception of openness and transparency in the provision of public services powered by e-government will have an uninterrupted effect on the public value of e-government. Studies have illustrated that openness has a positive impact on the public value of e-government (Karunasena and Deng, 2012). Consequently, H5 was proposed.

Responsiveness is the degree to which government sector organizations adhere to the requests and demands of citizens (Ngonzi and Sewchurran, 2019). Responsiveness in e-government is the expectation that citizens have regarding timely responses to their demands/inquiries through the e-government system (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Milosavljević et al., 2017). Government agencies can meet the requirement of swift response by stating clearly the minimum of days required for a particular service to be provided or processed and thus achieving a more responsive public administration system (Karunasena and Deng, 2012; Eom et al., 2018). The higher degree of responsiveness in the provision of government services via e-government will surely influence people's perception of the public value of e-government. It has been demonstrated that responsiveness is directly related to the public value of e-government (Karunasena and Deng, 2012). Consequently, H5 was proposed.

Public value is considered as the total value created/generated to meet the expectations of diverse stakeholders i.e., citizens and businesses by the government (Kelly et al., 2002; Karunasena and Deng, 2012). In terms of e-government, the public value is the use of e-government systems to improve the provision of government services that meet the demands of citizens and the general public (Dolan, 2015). Citizens are considered the core of the public value idea which evaluates the summation of benefits arising from government policies and actions toward citizens (Alford and O'Flynn, 2008; Meynhardt, 2009; Karunasena and Deng, 2012). Value creation should be the cardinal principle that drives the operations of public sector organizations in the implementation of government policies and programs such as e-government (Meynhardt, 2009). It is expected that the higher the public value created through e-government in terms of open data, data privacy, and ant-corruption measures (Valle-Cruz, 2019), the higher the adoption of e-government services would be. Research has indicated that public value created through e-government has a direct significant impact on citizens adopting e-government and mobile government services (Li and Shang, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). H7 was therefore proposed.

Scholars have indicated that the presence of common method bias (CMB) has the potential to cause a problem when researching especially when a single source is used to acquire research data (Podsakoff et al., 2003); therefore, this study examined the possibility of common method bias in our research. The common method bias is considered a serious challenge since it is perceived as the main source of measurement errors and has the potential to affect the validity of the conclusion concerning the interaction between measures/constructs (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Min et al., 2016). Harman's single-factor test was used to check the existence of CMB through the use of exploratory factor analysis. This was done to see if a single factor will emerge or account for the majority of the covariances between the measures. If this is not the case, then it is evident that CMB does not exist (Chang et al., 2020). As per the single factor analysis conducted, no single factor accounted for more than 37% of the variance of the majority measures, which was below the threshold of 50% (Tehseen et al., 2017). Accordingly, it can be said that issue of CMB does not exist in our study.

The information of the study sample is shown in Table 2. There were more female (58%) respondents as compared to males (42%), the majority of the respondents were between the ages of 31–40 (40.4%), and most of them were master's degree holders (43.9%).

The results of the measurement model are shown in Table 3. The measurement dimensions were examined by the computing factor loadings, Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, and the average variance extracted (AVE). Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability are acceptable when they have values above 0.70 (Henseler et al., 2016). The factor loadings and average variance extracted were recommended to be above 0.70 and 0.50 respectively (Henseler et al., 2009; Hair et al., 2010) for items to be considered valid. As indicated in Table 3, all the quality dimensions for good and acceptable measurement model outputs have been achieved. This thus meets the convergent validity of the items used in this study. A second level assessment was undertaken to determine the discriminant validity of the items used by using the square roots of AVE and the cross-loading matrix. The square roots of AVE are recommended to be greater than its correlation with variables for discriminant validity to exist. Additionally, the diagonal variables should have higher values as compared to the items in its related columns and rows if discriminant validity is to be achieved. As indicated in Table 4, the conditions for discriminant validity to occur have been met and thus confirm the discriminant validity of the items used in the study.

The results of the research hypotheses tested are indicated in Table 5. It was revealed that quality of information (β = 0.431, p < 0.05) and service delivery parameters (β = 0.321, p < 0.05) were significant predictors of the public value of e-government. Hence H1 and H2 were supported. Also, user-orientation (β = 0.348, p < 0.05) and efficiency (β = 0.578, p < 0.05) were found to be significant determinants of the public value of e-government. H3 and H4 were thus supported. Furthermore, openness (β = 0.220, p < 0.05) and responsiveness (β = 0.211, p < 0.05) were also found to be significant predictors of public value of e-government. Accordingly, H5 and H6 were supported. Finally, the public value of e-government was determined to be a significant determinant of the behavioral intention to adopt e-government services (β = 0.960, p < 0.05). The graphical depiction of the validated research model is illustrated in Figure 4.

This study has contributed to e-government and public value creation in e-government literature by demonstrating the drivers of public value and acceptance of e-government services within the context of Chinese society through validated PVEGAM. The constructs examined like the quality of information, service delivery parameters, user orientation, efficiency, openness, and responsiveness accounted for 62.1% of the factors influencing the public value of e-government from the perspective of the sample population. In addition, the public value of e-government, in turn, accounted for 77.9% of the elements driving the behavioral acceptance of e-government services.

The first implication of the results of this study is the validated direct influence of quality of information and service parameters on the public value of e-government. The creation of public value through e-government cannot be achieved without the designing of e-government services that are integrated with information quality dimensions. That is the quality of information delivered through e-government should meet certain criteria of relevancy, currency, interpretability, believability and reputation, accuracy, authoritative, and objectivity for it to create and generate the needed public value expectations of e-government. Policymakers in terms of e-government development should be concerned about the development of swift, accurate, pertinent, and precise/concise information and services if the public value of e-government is to be attained.

Another key result of this study is the significant impact of user orientation and efficiency on the public value of e-government which implies the development and diffusion of e-government. Technology-related applications often are concerned with how users can successfully interact with such applications or services. This thus calls for developers and designers of e-government projects to develop e-government systems that will yield better user orientation features such as easy to download and upload, easy navigation and browsing, accessibility, and ease of use. Also, efficiency implies the use of e-government systems that will re-design and re-align systems and processes to better achieve organizational goals and service parameters. Efficiency through e-government should help decrease the budget for processing and administration of public sector agencies; enhance better connectivity between citizens and public organizations, ensure adequate public information sharing, and result in shorter interaction among agencies.

Furthermore, this research confirmed that openness and responsiveness have a direct effect on the public value of e-government. The transparency of government agencies, sector ministries, and departments, by making all information and relevant programs readily available and open to citizens and the general public, can generate public value in e-government. It thus calls on the government to be open and demonstrate high levels of accountability and transparency to citizens through an effective e-government system. Exhibiting and achieving demonstrable openness and transparency in public administration and governance has the prospective to improve the citizens' perspective of the public value of e-government. Demonstrable openness and transparency can be achieved through the government's proactive dissemination of information, provision of needed documents and materials, public engagement or meetings, and leaks from whistleblowers which can reduce the level of corruption within and outside government.

The responsiveness dimension impact on the public value of e-government does indicate the need to redesign government processes and systems to be highly responsive to the service requirements of the citizens. It is only in this way that citizens can understand the public value of e-government programs. Policymakers should therefore design responsive e-government that will respond timely to emails and feedback, tracing of applications and status online, etc. The failure to achieve a responsive e-government system tends to disrupt the smooth interaction between citizens and government which may lead to the citizens not harboring the desire to connect or contact the government either physically, via phone, or by post.

Additionally, the public value of e-government was found to have a significant impact on the intention of citizens to adopt e-government services. This study provides empirical evidence for policymakers and practitioners of e-government to focus on creating greater public value in e-government since it has a subsequent effect on the decision of users to take up e-government services. For a government to be successful in e-government services, much attention must be paid to developing e-government systems that will create better public value for citizens. Government and agencies in charge of e-government must improve perceptions of citizens regarding the public service provided through e-government within the context of public value generated while delivering public services. These public values in e-government can be created through the provision of e-government systems that provide quality information, is user-orientated, ensure efficiency, is responsive to the needs and service desire of users, and ultimately is environmentally sustainable. Public value in the e-government architecture should be utilized to create improved administrative efficiency, improved public services, and improved social values. Once these public value dimensions of e-government can be noticed by users/citizens it will motivate them to use e-government services.