Studies focusing specifically on cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in sport are scarce, even though Gross’s (1998, 2015) process model represents a prominent approach to emotion regulation. Furthermore, the role of emotion regulation in the relationship between satisfaction of basic psychological needs and emotions with their associated manifestations (i.e., psychobiosocial experiences), has not yet been studied. The present study aimed to fill this gap in the literature by focusing on athletes’ perception of psychological needs satisfaction, emotion regulation, and emotional outcomes. Specifically, based on the results of Benita et al. (2020) and Robazza et al. (2022), the main aim of this investigation was to examine the role of athletes’ emotion regulation strategies (i.e., cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) in the relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction, selected emotions (i.e., happiness, excitement, anxiety, dejection, and anger), and a broad range of psychobiosocial experiences that are perceived as functional for performance. Examining relevant antecedents (i.e., basic psychological needs satisfaction) and adaptive outcomes of emotion regulation (i.e., emotions and psychobiosocial experiences) can contribute to the extant knowledge on the process model and provide practical indications to improve athletes’ well-being and performance.

Drawing from the tenets of the basic psychological needs theory (Ryan and Deci, 2017), the process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998), and the IZOF model conceptualization of psychobiosocial states (Hanin, 2007), we predicted that basic psychological needs satisfaction would be positively related to cognitive reappraisal, pleasant emotions (i.e., happiness, excitement), and functional psychobiosocial experiences, and negatively linked to expressive suppression and unpleasant emotions (anxiety, dejection, and anger; Hypothesis 1). Cognitive reappraisal was predicted to be positively associated with pleasant emotions/functional experiences and negatively linked to unpleasant emotions. Expressive suppression was expected to be negatively related to pleasant emotions/functional experiences and positively linked to unpleasant emotions (Hypothesis 2). Most importantly for the present study, we expected to observe indirect effects in the relationship between basic psychological needs and pleasant emotions, as well as between basic needs and functional experiences, via cognitive reappraisal (Hypothesis 3).

The initial sample consisted of 430 competitive athletes from the main sport clubs in central Italy. After outlier removal, the final sample (N = 424) encompassed 246 men (89 from individual sports and 157 from team sports) and 178 women (75 from individual sports and 103 from team sports), aged 16 to 36 years (M = 23.08, SD = 7.65). The athletes had between 1 to 21 years of competitive experience (M = 9.71, SD = 6.34) at regional level (71%), national level (18%), or international level (11%). They were involved in individual sports (n = 164; e.g., fencing, gymnastics, martial arts, swimming, and tennis) or team sports (n = 260; e.g., basketball, rugby, soccer, and volleyball; see Supplementary Table 1). The participants practiced their sport an average of 3.74 times a week (SD = 1.73).

The study was carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the first author’s institutional ethics committee (No. 19, 09/09/2021). Participants were recruited by directly approaching sport club managers and head coaches, sending them a study information letter via email followed by telephone contact. After agreement to participate was granted, the general aim of the study and detailed procedures were presented in a meeting with sport managers and coaches before contacting the athletes. The criteria for participation in the study required that the athletes be currently active, practiced at least twice a week, have a minimum of 6 months experience of regular training in the sport, compete consistently during the sporting season, and be at least 16 years old. Before providing informed consent, the athletes were informed about the general objective of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, the possibility to withdraw from the study at any time without consequences, and the confidentiality of their responses. Informed parental consent was obtained for participants under the age of 18. The questionnaires were completed individually in a quiet room prior to a practice session, with an investigator administering the questionnaires in groups of no more than five participants.

After data screening for potential outliers, assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity (Hair et al., 2019), we examined the factorial validity of the measures through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) performed in Mplus 8.5 (Muthén and Muthén, 2017) using the maximum likelihood (MLR) parameter estimator with standard errors and a chi-square test statistic that are robust to non-normality. Model fit was assessed with comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker Lewis fit index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Adequate fit was inferred with values of CFI and TLI > 0.90, and RMSEA and SRMR lower than 0.08 (Whittaker and Schumacker, 2022). Good fit was assumed with CFI and TLI values close or higher to 0.95, and RMSEA and SRMR lower than 0.06 (Hu and Bentler, 1999).

McDonald’s ω values were computed to assess reliability of the measures. Convergence among a set of items representing a latent construct of the whole measurement model was examined through the average variance extracted (AVE) of the latent variables. AVE values close to or larger than 0.50 are deemed to support convergent validity of the measurement model (Hair et al., 2019). Furthermore, discriminant validity was established by comparing the AVE estimates of each factor with the squared interconstruct correlations related to that factor. Discriminant validity is assumed when AVE estimates are greater than the corresponding interconstruct squared correlation values (Hair et al., 2019).

Differences by gender and sport categories (i.e., individual vs. team) on the item mean scores of the dependent variables (i.e., the subscales of the measures) were evaluated through multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). Without previous evidence in support of an expected effect size for a priori power calculation, Kang and Jin (2016) recommended using a medium effect size with an alpha of 0.05 and an expected power of 0.80. The sample size was estimated using G*Power software (Version 3.1.9.7; Faul et al., 2009), with f = 0.25 (medium effect size), β = 0.80, and α = 0.05. The resulting recommended sample size was 330, so the initial sample size of 430 participants in our study was adequate.

Finally, structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed in Mplus to test the indirect effects in the relationship between basic psychological needs and emotions/functional experiences via emotion regulation strategies. Mediation effects were tested using the maximum likelihood (ML) estimator and the bias-corrected bootstrap method based on 5,000 resamples with a 95% confidence interval around the standardized estimate (β). The sample size for SEM was established using the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Myers et al., 2016). The minimum sample size for RMSEA was computed using the code developed by Preacher and Coffman (2006) for the R program (https://cran.r-project.org/). A sample size of 195 resulted after setting the type I error rate to α = 0.05, power = 0.80, null RMSE = 0.05, alternative RMSE = 0.04, and df = 729. Again, the sample size in the present study was adequate.

Six cases were discarded because identified as univariate or multivariate outliers (Mahalanobis’ distance, p < 0.001). The final sample consisted of 424 participants. CFA on the BNSSS, ERQ, and SEQ data did not yield an acceptable fit, as reflected by poor loadings (< 0.40) of some items in the expected factor or cross-loadings. After the removal of problematic items, an acceptable fit to the data was obtained (Table 1) with values for comparative fit (CFI) and Tucker Lewis fit (TLI) indices >0.92, RMSEA and standardized root mean square residuals (SRMR) < 0.06 (Gunzler et al., 2021). McDonald’s ω reliability values ranged from 0.66 to 0.89. An acceptable fit to the data was also observed for the two measurement models relating the first to BNSSS, ERQ, and SEQ, and the second to BNSSS, ERQ, and PESD-Sport (Table 1). Acceptable convergent validity of the measurement model encompassing all measures was found, with most AVE values close to or above 0.50 (Table 1). In addition, adequate discriminant validity was observed after taking the lowest AVE value among the factors (i.e., 0.339 for Expressive suppression) as a reference. In fact, the AVE estimates were greater than the squared correlations between two latent factors for 160 of the 190 correlations.

Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients of latent variables are reported in Table 2. An inspection of correlation coefficients showed that (a) Competence was positively related to pleasant emotions (i.e., Excitement and Happiness), and psychobiosocial experiences, except for the Communicative modality, and negatively related to Expressive suppression and unpleasant emotions (i.e., Anxiety, Dejection, and Anger); (b) Autonomy was positively associated with Cognitive reappraisal; (c) Relatedness was positively linked to Cognitive reappraisal, pleasant emotions, and psychobiosocial experiences, except for Anxiety and Communicative modalities, and negatively linked to Expressive suppression, Dejection, and Anger; (d) Cognitive reappraisal was positively associated with pleasant emotions and Psychobiosocial Experiences, except for the Communicative modality; and (e) Expressive suppression was positively associated with Dejection, Anger, and the Communicative modality of psychobiosocial experiences, and negatively associated with Emotion u/p. All correlations were in the expected direction, except for Expressive suppression, which was significantly correlated with the Communicative modality of psychobiosocial experiences.

MANOVA yielded significant differences by gender, sport type, and gender by sport type interaction. The complete results are presented in the Supplementary materials, and follow-up comparisons are reported in Supplementary Table 2. To account for these differences, gender, sport type, and gender by sport type interaction were entered as covariates into subsequent SEM analyses.

Hypothesis 1 was partially supported, with autonomy and relatedness need satisfaction (but not competence) positively related to cognitive reappraisal, and competence and relatedness need satisfaction (but not autonomy) negatively linked to expressive suppression. Moreover, competence and relatedness were associated positively with pleasant emotions and negatively with unpleasant emotions. Competence and relatedness were positively related to most modalities of psychobiosocial experiences, likely due to the positive mean scores observed on all modalities across gender and sport type. Positive scores on all modalities had previously been observed in two samples of athletes (Robazza et al., 2021), indicating that the PESD-Sport mainly assesses functional experiences.

The results concur with previous research indicating that the satisfaction of athletes’ basic psychological needs was positively associated with enjoyment (e.g., Jaakkola et al., 2016), optimal social functioning, well-being, and self-development (e.g., Cheval et al., 2017), and negatively related to burnout and ill-being (e.g., Balaguer et al., 2012; for a review, see Raabe et al., 2019). Findings also complement those of Robazza et al. (2022), who found that perceived mastery climate was positively associated with cognitive reappraisal and pleasant emotions/functional experiences. The results of the previous and the present study taken together suggest that a mastery motivational climate, as conceived within goal achievement theory, and the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, as conceptualized within self-determination theory, are associated with adaptive emotions and emotion-related experiences. In this regard, Duda (2013) combined the theoretical notions and applied indications stemming from the two theoretical perspectives within the so-called “Empowering Coaching” program, which aims to help coaches create a more empowering motivational climate, assumed to satisfy athletes’ psychological needs and promote their quality of engagement in sport and overall health (Duda and Appleton, 2016; for a review, see Birr et al., 2023). In a sample of British athletes, Ruiz et al. (2021a) reported direct and indirect effects of an empowering climate to happiness and excitement via autonomous motivation, and of a disempowering climate to dejection and anger via controlled motivation. The results from the current study are in line with this hierarchical conceptualization of the motivational climate and previous research findings.

Hypothesis 2 was also partially supported, with cognitive reappraisal being positively linked to pleasant emotions and most psychobiosocial experiences. The results align with research findings from the general population of predominantly Western cultural background (e.g., Gross and John, 2003; Preece et al., 2020) and with athletic samples (Cece et al., 2019), indicating that the antecedent-focused strategy of cognitive reappraisal is usually associated with pleasant affect (e.g., Balzarotti et al., 2010; Ioannidis and Siegling, 2015). Interestingly, the correlation between the cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression scores was close to zero, suggesting that these are two independent regulatory strategies (John and Eng, 2014).

The pattern of correlations between expressive suppression and emotions was as expected (i.e., negative with pleasant emotions and positive with unpleasant emotions), although the only significant correlations were found with dejection and anger. Regarding psychobiosocial experiences, expressive suppression correlated negatively with most modalities as predicted, although the only significant correlations were observed with the emotion u/p and communicative modalities. Interestingly, the correlation with the communicative modality was positive, as also found in Robazza et al.’s (2022) study, indicating that communication with significant others (e.g., coaches and peers) may be facilitated when the athletes’ externalization of unpleasant experiences is inhibited.

Finally, the lack of a significant correlation between scores of expressive suppression and anxiety may be interpreted in light of research evidence showing that anxiety symptoms can be appraised not only as debilitative, but also as facilitative, depending on the individual’s perceived impact on performance (Jones et al., 1994; Neil et al., 2012). Indeed, symptoms such as increased heart rate and muscle tension during competition, while unpleasant, may be perceived by the athlete as helpful in energizing their behavior and keeping their attention focused on the task. Therefore, athletes who appraise their anxiety symptoms as helpful may not need to suppress them.

Regarding Hypothesis 3, findings support the expected indirect effects of emotion regulation strategies on the relationship between autonomy and relatedness needs satisfaction and pleasant emotions (i.e., happiness and excitement), as well as most modalities of psychobiosocial experiences via cognitive reappraisal. These findings align with and extend those of an earlier study, which showed that perceived mastery climate had positive indirect effects on psychobiosocial experiences through cognitive reappraisal (Robazza et al., 2022). This is as one would expect, considering that in a mastery climate, the coach’s attention is on individual criteria of success and positive interactions with peers, rather than on external criteria of success and outperforming others. The results of the current study, as well as existing empirical evidence, support the view that a coach-created empowering motivational climate (Duda and Appleton, 2016), characterized by the satisfaction of individual basic needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan and Deci, 2017) in a mastery climate (Nicholls, 1984), is accompanied by adaptive emotion regulation (i.e., cognitive reappraisal), pleasant emotions, and functional psychobiosocial experiences. In addition, negative indirect effects emerged from competence and relatedness to the communicative modality of psychobiosocial experiences through expressive suppression. As previously noted, this may be due to the positive correlation between expressive suppression and the communicative modality, suggesting that communication may be improved when the athletes inhibit their display of unpleasant feelings.

Lastly, gender differences are worth noting. In particular, men reported higher scores on both emotion regulation strategies, confidence, and functional anxiety, and lower scores on unpleasant anxiety than women. Moreover, women involved in individual sports scored higher on unpleasant anxiety. These differences are likely due to gender distinctions created by stereotypes and norms embedded in the social and sport systems. These social influences can impact how emotions and related feelings are expressed and, consequently, the use of emotion regulation strategies (Morano et al., 2020b; for a review, see Gill, 2020).

From an applied standpoint, coaches should provide athletes with a supportive environment to enhance their sense of competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Greenlees, 2022), and promote the experience of pleasant emotions and functional feeling states. Schüler et al. (2023) offered several suggestions on how to promote satisfaction of basic psychological needs in sport. Coaches can foster autonomy by providing athletes with opportunities to make decisions about their sport participation in training and competition, allowing them to express their opinions and preferences, and assisting them in making decisions that are consistent with their goals and values. Competence can be improved by providing informative feedback focused on improvements, setting realistic and achievable goals, and designing practice and competition environments that match the individual’s skill levels and abilities. The sense of relatedness can be strengthened by providing opportunities for social interaction and promoting a supportive and inclusive environment in which all athletes feel valued and included.

Furthermore, practitioners should help athletes adopt an adaptive emotion regulation style, focused on cognitive reappraisal rather than engaging in expressive suppression, to improve their sporting experience and well-being. Athletes should be informed about the differences between adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, and the advantages of cognitive reappraisal over expressive suppression in terms of emotional responses and performance outcomes (Uphill et al., 2009). Practitioners should promote open communication in which athletes feel comfortable expressing their feelings and are willing to identify, reframe, and cognitively reappraise dysfunctional thoughts and emotions in training and competition (Lane et al., 2012). Examples of athletes’ dysfunctional appraisal are, “I am feeling nervous about this event. I am afraid of embarrassing myself in front of everyone,” and “I have already failed my goal under pressure. I did it at a decisive moment in the competition.” Suggested adaptive alternatives can be, “Feeling nervous is normal before an event. I can use this energy to focus on my goals and give my best,” and “Yes, I feel the pressure, but I have learned from my previous mistakes. I have worked hard and have the skills to deal with it. I just need to stay focused and trust my abilities.”

The cross-sectional nature of this investigation does not allow to establish causal relationships between variables, which also limits the generalizability of the findings. To determine causality, longitudinal or experimental studies are needed to assess the effect of one variable on other variables over time or as a result of an intervention.

Another study limitation is its focus on basic psychological needs and cognitive reappraisal, which represent narrowed aspects of athletes’ motivation and emotion regulation within the broader frameworks of the self-determination theory (Ryan and Vansteenkiste, 2023) and the process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 1998, 2014, 2015). While basic psychological needs and cognitive reappraisals are important, they do not cover all factors that motivate and regulate goal-directed behavior. Therefore, a wider approach should consider, for example, individual differences, the dynamics of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, the roles of expectancies and goals, and the environmental and social factors that influence motivation (Ryan, 2019), as well as a range of emotion regulation strategies used by different individuals (English et al., 2021). This approach could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the interplay between athletes’ motivational factors, emotion regulation, and emotional responses on performance processes and outcomes.

Finally, we examined gender and sport type differences in the studied variable scores. Possible differences by age, experience, and competitive level could not be examined due to the unequal distribution of these categories in the sample. Future studies should involve a more balanced number of participants in terms of age, experience, competitive level, gender, and sport type, as well as establish measurement and structural invariance of the measures.