Contribution of the d-Serine-Dependent Pathway to the Cellular Mechanisms Underlying Cognitive Aging

An association between age-related memory impairments and changes in functional plasticity in the aging brain has been under intense study within the last decade. In this article, we show that an impaired activation of the strychnine-insensitive glycine site of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDA-R) by its agonist d-serine contributes to deficits of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus of memory-impaired aged rats. Supplementation with exogenous d-serine prevents the age-related deficits of isolated NMDA-R-dependent synaptic potentials as well as those of theta-burst-induced long-term potentiation and synaptic depotentiation. Endogenous levels of d-serine are reduced in the hippocampus with aging, that correlates with a weaker expression of serine racemase synthesizing the amino acid. On the contrary, the affinity of d-serine binding to NMDA-R is not affected by aging. These results point to a critical role for the d-serine-dependent pathway in the functional alterations of the brain underlying memory impairment and provide key information in the search for new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of memory deficits in the elderly.


experiments
ere performed in strict compliance with the European Communities Council Directive (86/809/EEC) regarding the care and use of animals for experimental procedures and An association between age-related memory impairments and changes in functional plasticity in the aging brain has been under intense study within the last decade.In this article, we show that an impaired activation of the strychnine-insensitive glycine site of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDA-R) by its agonist D-serine contributes to defi cits of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus of memory-impaired aged rats.Supplementation with exogenous D-serine prevents the age-related defi cits of isolated NMDA-R-dependent synaptic potentials as well as those of theta-burst-induced long-term potentiation and synaptic depotentiation.Endogenous levels of D-serine are reduced in the hippocampus with aging, that correlates with a weaker expression of serine racemase synthesizing the amino acid.On the contrary, the affi nity of D-serine binding to NMDA-R is not affected by aging.These results point to a critical role for the D-serine-dependent pathway in the functional alterations of the brain underlying memory impairment and provide key information in the search for new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of memory defi cits in the elderly.

impaired in aged rodents (Barnes et al., 1997;Potier et al., 2000), the mechanisms that signifi cantly contribute to this alteration have yet to be defi nitely identifi ed and it remains to be determined whether it is really involved in age-related defi cits in synaptic plasticity.

In addition to glutamate, NMDA-R activation requires the binding of a co-agonist at the strychnine-insensitive glycine site (Johnson and Ascher, 1990).Recent developments indicate that the amino acid d-serine, rather than glycine itself, is th

main endogenous co-agonist of NMDA-R in cerebral areas involved in memory processes, and in the hippocampus in particular (Mothet et al., 2000).M
reover, it has been shown that the induction of LTP both in hippocampal cultures and in slice preparations is blocked when d-serine is absent from the extracellular space (Yang et al., 2003;Mothet et al., 2006).These results suggest a possible contribution of d-serine to the impairment of NMDA-R activation and functional plasticity that t

es place in the a
ing brain, and consequently a role for the amino acid in age-related memory defects.

In this report, we present our recent experimental results indicating that the manipulation of d-serine levels at the synapse may be an alternative strategy for the development of new treatments for cognitive aging.


INTRODUCTION

In the general decline that gradually develops with age, learning and memory defi cits are frequent features.Studies in animal models of aging have confi rmed the occurrence of cognitive decline with age and shown that it concerns several forms of memory, including spatial, associative and long-term memory (Winocur and Moscovitch, 1990;Gallagher and Rapp, 1997;Miyamoto, 1997;Houston et al., 1999;Norris and Foster, 1999;Clayton et l., 2002a;Sykova et al., 2002;Rosenzweig and Barnes, 2003;Gruart et al., 2008).These studies emphasize the role of the hippocampus and related structures in age-related memory defi cits, demonstrating that the functional properties of hippocampal networks are particularly vulnerable to aging (Landfi eld, 1988;Foster and Norris, 1997;Thibault et al., 2007).In particular, the study of long-lasting modifi cations of glutamatergic neurotransmission such as long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression and LTP reversal (depotentiation), now considered to be the functional substrates of memory encoding (Izquierdo and Medina, 1995;Kim and Linden, 2007), have demonstrated changes in the threshold and/ or magnitude of synap

c plasticity with
ge (Foster, 1999;Barnes, 2003).Although several mechanisms may account for these changes (Rosenzweig and Barnes, 2003;Foster, 2007), most of these studies have focused on the activation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate subtype of glutamate receptors (N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors, NMDA-R).Indeed, these receptors play a major role in regulating synaptic strength, by means of their high permeability to Ca 2+ , which triggers the activation of specifi c protein kinases and phosphatases (Wang et al., 19 7).Although evidence indicates that NMDA-R activation is approved by the local ethics committee.Experiments were conducted on "adult" (3-6 months old, n = 58) and "aged" (25-33 months old, n = 57) male Sprague-Dawley rats purchased from IFFA-CREDO (France).Rats were maintained on a 12 h controlled light-dark cycle at a constant temperature (22 ± 2°C) with ad libitum access to food and water.


BEHAVIORAL TESTS

The task was a modifi ed version of the Morris water maze (Morris et al., 1982).Each rat was fi rst trained to swim to a visible platform (13 cm × 13 cm) placed in a fi xed position in one of the quadrants of a circular pool (150 cm in diameter), painted black and fi lled with water at 21-22°C.The platform was 2 cm above the surface of the water, and could easily be seen by the rats.The time (escape latency) and distance swum before fi nding the platfor were then determined.If the rat did not fi nd the platform within 60 s, it was placed on the platform and left for 35 s.Four trials per day were carried out for 6 days.A different (randomly determined) starting location was used for each trial.Visual cues were present around the pool.

During the second phase of testing (place version), the rat was trained to swim to an invisible platform that was located at a position different from that used during the visible platform trial.The platform was located 2 cm below the surface of the water.Four trials per day were ca ried out for 6 days.The position of the platform remained the same for the 6 days of the test.For each trial, the time and distance to platform and swim speed were measured using Smart C software.On day 7 (probe trial), the hidden platform was removed and the time spent by the rat swimming through the different quadrants, including the quadrant in which the platform was situated during place learning, was registered over a 90-s period.


ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY

Transverse hippocampal slices (400 µm) were obtaine

rder to prevent the propagation of epileptiform discharg
s.The slope of three averaged fEPSPs was measured and plotted against different intensities of stimulation (from 0 to 500 µA) using Acquis 1 software (CNRS, Paris, France).

For experiments investigating LTP, two different conditioning stimuli were delivered after a baseline acquisition of 15 min.In the case of high frequency stimulation (HFS), the stimulus consisted of two trains (100 Hz for 1 s) separated by a 20-s interval.In the case of theta-burst stimulation (TBS), it consisted of fi ve trains of four pulses at 100 Hz separated by 200 ms.This sequence was repeated three times with an interval of 10 s.In both HFS and TBS experiments, testing with a single pulse was then resumed for 60 min to determine the level of stable LTP.

In order to investigate the depotentiation of synaptic trans

ssion, a low frequency conditioning st
mulus (LFS, 900 pulses, 1 Hz) was applied 1 h after HFS delivery.Tests with a single pulse were resumed for at least 40 min after LFS.To study the effects of exogenous d-serine, the co-agonist was applied throughout the recording except for the depotentiation paradigm where it was applied 50 min after HFS delivery, once LTP was stabilized.The co-agonist was then maintained until the end of the recording.


AUTORADIOGRAPHY

[ 3 H] L-689.560(22.41 Ci/mmol or 0.83 TBq/mmol) was obtained from Tocris Cookson, Bristol (UK).The brain of adult and aged rats were quickly removed, frozen for 30 s in isopentane at −40°C and stored at −80°C.Coronal sections (14 µm) were cut on a cryostat at −15°C and mounted onto glass slides.Brain sections were preincubated with 50 mM Tris acetate buffer (pH 7.0) at room temperature for 30 min to remove endogenous free d-serine.For competition studies, sections were incubated with Tris acetate buffer supplemented with 10 µM strychnine and 1 nM [ 3 H] L-689.560containing d-serine, glycine and L-689.560 at 4°C for 120 min.After incubation, the slides were rinsed four times with cold Tris acetate buffer (4°C) for a total of 20 s and then in distilled water at the same temperature for 5 s.After drying, slides were placed on [ 3 H]-sensitive fi lm (Hyperfi lm-3 H, Amersham) for two mon

s at 4°C.The fi lm was developed with Dektol (Kodak) for 2
min and analyzed using an X-ray fi lm digitizer, RAG500, and Biocom software (Les Ulis, France).


DETERMINATION OF D-SERINE CONTENT IN HIPPOCAMPAL SLICES

Free amino acids were extracted from pooled brain slices with trichloroacetic acid and stored at −80°C until assay.Two different procedures were used to determine d-serine content.The fi rst technique quantifi ed d-serine using a chemiluminescent assay based on the dAAO/HRP/luminol system (Wolosker et al., 1999).In the second approach, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was performed using pre-column derivatization of samples with O-phthaldialdehyde and N-acetyl cysteine.Dia-stereo-isomers were resolved in the isocratic phase on a C18 Nova Pak column.In both procedures, the amount of d-serine was adjusted to protein content as determined by a Bio-Rad DC protein assay (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, US

.Stand
rds of d-serine were used to normalize the results.


SEMI-QUANTITATIVE IMMUNOBLOT ANALYSIS

Western blot analysis was performed as described previously (Puyal et al., 2002).Briefl y, after lysis, protein extracts were subjected to electrophoresis (

e obtained with SDS 2.0 and were used for r
lative expression calculations.


DRUGS

All drugs were applied in aCSF and included NBQX (10 µM in DMSO), d-2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate (d-APV, 30-80 µM), d-serine (2-200 µM), l-serine (100 µM), L689.560 (10 µM) and nifedipine (50 µM).Drugs were purchased from Tocris (Illkirch, France).


STATISTICS

All results are expressed as means ± SEM.Behavioral results and time-course of synaptic plasticity were analyzed by one or two-ways analyses of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures, followed by post hoc multiple comparisons tes s (Fisher's PLSD) (Statview ® ).

The sensitivity of NMDA-R-mediated fEPSPs to exogenous d-serine was determined using Student's paired t-test while the effects of age on other parameters (magnitude of LTP over the last 15 min of recordings, expression of proteins involved in the d-serine pathway, d-serine levels) were analyzed using an unpaired t-test.In all cases, differences were considered signifi cant when p ≤ 0.05.


RESULTS

Spatial learning was explored in adults (n = 10) and aged animals (n = 12) using different versions of the Morris water maze protocol.As illustrated in Figure 1A (left), the distance swum to fi nd the platform differed greatly between groups (p < 0.0001) and a signifi cant interaction between group and time was observed, since aged rats swam longer distances before reaching the hidden platform in the "place" version of the task (interaction of distance × group/age, p < 0.01).When each group was examined separately, adult rats effici ntly learned the position of the platform across trials, as demonstrated by a signifi cant decrease in the distance swum before fi nding the platform in each subsequent trial (p < 0.005), whereas aged rats did not (p = 0.3).When animals were tested 24 h after the end of the learning sessions, adult rats spent more time swimming in the quadrant in which the platform was located during place learning, whereas aged ones did not (Figure 1A, right).In contrast, the two groups of animals did not differ in swim speed during place learning (15.3 ± 0.9 cm/s in adults vs. 12.4 ± 1.1 cm/s in aged animals) and in distance swum or time to escape onto a visible platform in the cued version of the maze (not shown).These results indicate that aged rats are signifi cantly impaired with respect to spatial learning and that these defi cits are independent of sensory and/or motor dysfunctions.


AGE-RELATED CHANGES IN SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

Since spatia

learning has been associated with the capacity of hippocampal neuronal networks to adapt
synaptic strength to ongoing changes in presynaptic activity (Izquierdo and Medina, 1995;Lynch, 2004;Kim and Linden, 2007), we compared the induction and expression of synaptic plasticity in hippocampal slices from adults and aged rats, including high-frequ ncy (HFS) and thetaburst (TBS)-patterns to study LTP, and HFS followed 1 h later by low frequency stimulation (LFS) to evaluate depotentiation (see Materials and Methods).Following the HFS protocol, recordings in slices from adult rats (n = 20) showed a long-term increase in synaptic transmission (Figure 1B, left) of 48.7 ± 5.4%, averaged from the last 15 min of recordings (Figure 1B, right).LTP generated in slices from aged rats (n = 13) had a magnitude (50.4 ± 8.7%) similar to that recorded in adults (Figure 1B, right).However, it is worth noting that the fEPSPs amplitude rapidly returned to baseline levels in slices from adult rats (n = 10) when HFS was delivered in the pre ence of the NMDA-R antagonist d-APV (80 µM), whereas a long lasting potentiation still remained under the same conditions in slices from aged animals (17.1 ± 4.9%, n = 10 when averaged from the last 15 min of recordings).HFS-induced LTP was prevented in aged rats only when the conditioning stimulus was delivered in the presence of d-APV and of the voltage-gated calcium channel (VGCC) blocker nifedipine (50 µM) (Figure S1 in Supplementary Material).

Under control conditions, a low frequency stimulus (1 Hz, 15 min) delivered 1 h after HFS induced an LTP reversal or depotentiation in slices from adult animals (n = 9) but had little effect on slices from aged rats (n = 19) (Figure 1C, left).Indeed, the percent reversal calculated from the last 15 min of recordings averaged 32.3 ± 2.7% in the former and only 10.7 ± 2.3% in the latter, indicating that LTP reversal was affected by age (Figure 1C, right).

In the theta-burst paradigm of stimulation (TBS), synaptic

ansmission was potentiated in slices from adult rats (n = 12) (Figu
e 1D, left), resulting in a 35.4 ± 2.4% increase in amplitude.TBS-induced LTP was also recorded in slices from old animals (n = 13) (Figure 1D, left) but the percent increase (19.4 ± 4.7%) was signifi cantly lower than that reached in adult rats (p = 0.02) (Fig re 1D, right).Contrary to our results with HFS-induced LTP, the long-lasting increase in


AGE-RELATED CHANGES IN ISOLATED NMDA-R-MEDIATED SYNAPTIC RESPONSES: EFFECTS OF D-SERINE

Except for the HFS-induced LTP in aged rats in which VGCC were also concerned, the specifi c antagonist d-APV alone was able to prevent the expression of synaptic plasticity in both groups of animals, confi rming the pivotal role of NMDA-R in this process.We therefore subsequently looked for changes in the behavior of isolated NMDA-R-mediated synaptic potentials that could account for these age-related changes in synaptic plasticity.Synaptic potentials were recorded in low-Mg 2+ medium supplemented with the AMPA receptor antagonist NBQX (10 µM), and were blocked by d-APV (30 µM) added at the end of the recordings (Figure 2A).I/O curves plotted for data collected using 53 slices from 24 adult rats and 37 slices from 19 aged animals at multiple stimulus intensities (Figure 2B) indicated that the amplitude of these NMDA-R synaptic potentials was signifi cantly reduced in aged rats (interaction of strain × intensity, p = 0.01).

Because NMDA-R synaptic potentials were also antagonized by L689.560 (10 µM), the specifi c blocker of the glycine modulatory site, we wondered whether changes affecting this binding site could underlie the age-related decrease in NMDA-R activation

e therefore checked the responsiveness of isola
ed NMDA-Rmediated synaptic potentials to an exogenous application of the specifi c agonist d-serine.As illustrated in Figure 2C, the amino acid dose-dependently enhanced these synaptic responses, but its potency w s signifi cantly higher in slices from aged rats than in those from young adults, regardless of the concentration of the co-agonist.Consequently, defi cits in NMDA-R synaptic potentials were prevented in slices from aged animals supplied with d-serine (see Figure 2D).In contrast, l-serine (100 µM), the precursor of d-serine, did not signifi cantly alter isolated NMDA-R synaptic potentials either in slices from adults (n = 10) or from old rats (n = 9).


EFFECTS OF D-SERINE ON AGE-RELATED DEFICITS IN SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

Since isolated NM A-R potentials were rescued from age-related alterations by boosting the activation of the glycine modulatory site, we asked whether defi cits in the expression of synaptic plasticity in aged rats could also be reversed by the same procedure.

In slices from adults (n = 12), d-serine did not affect the magnitude of HFS-induced LTP, whereas it signifi cantly increased the amplitude of potentiation in slices (n = 10) from old animals (p < 0.05, Figure 3A, left).Under these conditions, in which the agonist saturated the glycine binding sites of the NMDA-R, HFS-induced LTP was higher in aged rats (77.8 ± 13.9%) than in younger ones (55 ± 11.6%) (Figure 3A, right), although this difference was not statistically relevant.

The effects of exogenous d-serine on depotentiation were then investigated.When the NMDA-R co-agonist was present in the aCSF during LFS delivery, the magnitude of depotentiation in slices from aged rats (n = 9) was signifi cantly enhanced (p < 0.05), whereas no effect was seen in slices from adult rats (n = 6) (Figure 3B, left).Under these conditions, the age-related alteration of depotentiation was therefore prevented by d-serine (Figure 3B, right).Regarding the effects of by d-serine on TBS-induced LTP, the magnitude averaged over the last 15 min of recording was significantly increased in slices from both young adult (n = 11) and aged (n = 11) animals, but the increase was greater in the latter group (Figure 3A, left).Consequently, the age-related defi cit in TBSinduced LTP was alleviated by the exogenous application of the NMDA-R co-agonist (Figure 3C, right).


D-SERINE-DEPENDENT METABOLIC PATHWAYS IN AGING

The impaired activation of the NMDA-R glycine modulatory site by endogenous d-serine during aging may be due to changes in receptor affi nity and/or the availability of the co-agonist in aged hippocampal tissues.

d-serine binding sites were abundantly present in the stratum radiatum and stratum oriens of the CA1 hippocampal region as well as in the dentate gyrus of both adult (n = 3) and aged (n = 3) animals, as revealed by the potent radioligand [ 3 H] L689.560.This ligand w

dose-depen
ently displaced by unlabeled d-serine (from 3 nM to 300 µM) to a similar extent in the two groups of animals and in all hippocampal subregions (Figures 4A-C), indicating that the affi nity of the NMDA-R glycine binding site for d-serine was not altered by age.

To determine whether aging alters the availability of the endogenous ligand, two different methods were applied.In the fi rst, the levels of endogenous d-serine were determined by a specifi c chemiluminescent assay based on the d-amino acid oxidase/horseradish peroxidase/luminal system (Wolosker et al., 1999).With this method, we found that levels of the amino acid were signifi cantly decreased in hippocampal tissues of old rats (n = 7) when compared with adults (n = 9) (Figure 4D, left).In parallel, the amounts of d-serine as well as those of its precursor l-serine were determined in a different pool of animals using conventional HPLC (Figure 4D, right).This experiment confi rmed that hippocampal tissues derived from old rats (n = 7) had reduced levels of d-serine whereas the amount of l-serine tended to be higher (Figure 4D, right).As a consequence, the d/L-serine ratio was signifi cantly lowered from 0.42 in young adult ra s to 0.06 in old animals (p < 0.001).This age-related decrease in d/L-serine ratio suggests that dserine metabolism is impaired.We therefore checked for the expression of serine racemase (SR) and d-amino-acid oxidase (dAAO), the enzymes synthesizing and degrading d-serine respectively.In Western blots (Figure 5A), we detected a single band of 37-kDa corresponding to the predicted molecular mass of SR.Semiquantitative analysis of samples from fi ve young adult and fi ve aged rats showed a signifi cant age-related decrease in enzyme expression (−42%, p < 0.01) once the amount of protein loaded was normalized to α-tubulin (Figure 5B).In contrast, the expression of dAAO, identifi ed as a 39-kDa band, (Figure 5A) was not affected in aged animals (Figure 5B).

Similar results were obtained for mRNA levels.Indeed, quantitative PCR showed that mRNA levels for SR were signifi cantly decreased in the hippocampus of aged rats (p < 0.01), whereas those for dAAO were not modifi ed (Figure 5C).It is worth noting that the expression of the glutamate metabolizing enzyme glutamine synthetase is not affected, indicating that the glutamine/glutamate cycle is not altered by aging.


DISCUSSION

In the last century, the mortality of the world population has been substantially delayed by improvements in hygiene and nutrition and by better treatment for illnesses.However, this increase in life expectancy is unfortunately associated with defi cits in learning and memory (cognitive) or in motivation (emotional) (Grady and Craik, 2000;Craik and Bialystok, 2006;Luo and Craik, 2008).Over the past few decades, extensive behavioral experiments in animal models of aging, mainly conducted in aged rodents of different strains and species, have clearly shown how effi cient learning and memory in young individuals is slowed down with age, while forgetfulness is accelerated (Winocur and Moscovitch, 1990;Gallagher and Rapp, 1997;Miyamoto, 1997;Houston et al., 1999;Norris and Foster, 1999;Clayton et al., 2002b;Sykova et al., 2002;Gruart et al., 2008).In accordance with these studies, we have shown in our investigation that spatial learning is altered in aged Sprague-Dawley rats, indepen ent of sensory and/or motor dysfunctions.Identifying the functional changes in the brain that underlie cognitive aging is now of particular importance in order to improve quality of life in the elderly.

In the present report, we show that age-related defi cits in spatial memory are correlated with changes in the ability of the aging brain to drive synaptic plasticity in neuronal networks of the hippocampus (see Junjaud et al., 2006;Mothet et al., 2006;Billard and Rouaud, 2007).When moderate synaptic activation is concerned, such as the activation evoked by TBS paradigms, the expression of LTP is impaired in aged animals (Moore et al., 1993;Tombaugh et al., 2002).We show that this form of LTP is blocked by the specifi c NMDA-R antagonist d-APV in both young adult and aged animals.Its impairment in the aging hippocampus is therefore likely to refl ect a weaker activation of these subtypes of glutamatergic receptors.In contrast, age-related defi cits in LTP are overridden by the N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptors activation relies on a voltagedependent blockade by magnesium (Nowak et al., 1984) that is not affected in aged animals (Potier et al., 2000).It also needs the binding of a co-agonist a the strychnine-insensitive glycine modulatory site (Johnson and Ascher, 1987).In the last few years, the amino acid d-serine has been proposed as the main endogenous co-agonist of NMDA-R in the hippocampus, since its function, as revealed by biochemical and electrophysiological methods, are weakened by the selective degradation of d-serine by the degrading enzyme dAAO (Mothet et al., 2000;Yang et al., 2003).Our study shows that exogenous d-serine enhances isolated NMDA-R-mediated synaptic responses in both young adult (see also Watanabe et al., 1992;Martina et al., 2003;Krasteniakov et al., 2005) and aged rats but that the potency of the co-agonist is higher in the latter group.In addition, we have found that d-serine is able to reverse the agerelated defi cits in NMDA-R-mediated synaptic po entials and synaptic plasticity, including TBS-induced LTP and depotentiation, as has been previously reported in senescence-accelerated (SAMP8) mice (Yang et al., 2005).These results therefore indicate that the reduced activation of NMDA-R glycine binding sites by endogenous d-serine is a potent mechanism underlying the age-related defi cits in synaptic plasticity.

The increased effi cacy of d-serine supplementation with age may refl ect changes in the degree of receptor saturation, determined by the specifi c affi nity of the glycine modulatory site and/or changes in endogenous d-serine levels.Our binding studies have indicated that receptor affi nity for d-serine remains unaffected in aged Sprague-Dawley rats, as reported in other strains of rats and in mice (Miyoshi et al., 1990;Nagata et al., 1998).In contrast, we provide evidence to show that endogenous levels of d-serine are dramatically reduced with aging.This result differs from previous studies showing no changes in d-serine levels in aged Wistar rats (Hashimoto et al., 1993) and SAMP8 mice (Nagata et al., 1998).A possible explanation for this discrepancy lies in differences between species or strains.Nevertheless, we have recently found that d-serine levels are also decreased in the hippocampus of aged Wistar rats (Turpin et al., 2009).An alternative possibility is that age-related changes in d-serine levels occur in restricted areas of the brain, since we used isolated hippocampi in our experiments whereas the study of Hashimoto et al. (1993) was performed with whole brain extracts.

The fact that d-serine levels are decreased while those of its precursor l-serine are simultaneously increased strongly argues for changes in the d-serine biosynthetic pathway during aging.Accordingly, we found that the expression of the synthesizing enzyme serine racemase is weakened in old rats, both at the mRNA and protein levels, whereas dAAO is not affected.It remains to be determined whether the activity of serine racemase is also altered.Other mechanisms amplifying the age-related decrease in the synaptic availability of d-serine, such as changes in its diffusion rate in the extracellular space (Sykova et al., 1998(Sykova et al., , 2002) ) and/or an increased reuptake by membrane transporters in both neuronal and glial cells (see Billard, 2008 for a review), remain to be investigated.

The ability of d-serine to prevent age-related defi cits in synaptic plasticity makes this amino acid an attractive tool for the reduction of memory dysfunction in the aged.It is worth noting that stronger synaptic activation induced by HFS protocols, indicating that additional mechanisms have come into play to compensate for the impaired NMDA-R activation.Indeed, synaptic plasticity is completely blocked in the hippocampus of aged rats only if HFS is delivered in the presence of d-APV and of the antagonist nifedipine, indicating that VGCCs also contribute to HFS-induced LTP in aged animals, as previously suggested (Shankar et al., 1998).Whatever the mechanisms that compensate for impaired NMDA-R activation, behavioral experiments reveal that they are not helpful in maintaining memory capacity in aged subjects at young adult levels.It is worth noting that VGCC activation is not related to memory acquisition, but only to the retention of information (Borroni et al., 2000) and that the excessive activation of the L-subtype of VGCCs may be detrimental to memory formation (Liu et al., 2003).Furthermore, we have shown that LTP is rapidly depotentiated in adult but not in aged animals, using an LFS protocol (Kamal et al., 1998).Since LTP saturation disrupts memory formation in young rats (Moser and Moser, 1999), a reduced capacity of hippocampal networks to be reset from potentiated levels may also constitute a synaptic mechanism contributing to cognitive aging.On the other hand, it has been reported that HFS-induced LTP is impaired in aged mice in vivo (Gruart et al., 2008), indicating that compensatory mechanisms involving VGCCs do not occur in this species.Alternatively, this discrepancy with our own results could be due to differences in experimental protocols (in vivo vs. in vitro, age of the animals, number of conditioning trains of stimuli).

As discussed above, age-related changes in synaptic plasticity are likely to refl ect a shift in calcium sources, with a weaker role for NMDA-R and an increased contribution of VGCCs and intracellular stores with different kinetic properties, at least in the rat hippocampus (Kumar and Foster, 2005;Gant et al., 2006;Foster, 2007;Thibault et al., 2007).Our investigations confi rm the agerelated impairment in NMDA-R activation, as demonstrated by the decrease in the magnitude of isolated NMDA-R-dependent synaptic potentials in old animals (see also Barnes et al., 1997;Potier et al., 2000).Considering that only postsynaptic determinants are concerned (Burke and Barnes, 2006), it could be expected that a decrease in receptor number underlies this impairment.Accordingly, Clayto

et al. (2002b) have rep
rted that age-associated changes in LTP expression can be mimicked by reducing the density of NR2B subunits.Several studies have also shown that t