Abstract
Doubling farmers’ income by maximizing crop productivity per unit of resource utilized while safeguarding long-term soil health has become a major global concern in sustainable agriculture. The horticulture sector is progressively shifting from an exclusive focus on yield maximization toward improving irrigation water and fertilizer use efficiency to achieve higher productivity with reduced resource consumption. Inefficient use of water and fertilizers not only limits crop productivity but also contributes to soil degradation, nutrient losses, environmental pollution, and declining input-use efficiency. In this context, drip fertigation has emerged as an effective management strategy for vegetable production due to its ability to deliver water and nutrients directly to the crop root zone in a precise and demand-driven manner. Fertigation improves synchronization between crop nutrient demand and resource supply, thereby enhancing nutrient uptake, reducing nutrient losses, and improving crop performance. This review critically evaluates the role of fertigation in improving crop growth, yield, produce quality, nutrient use efficiency, and water productivity in vegetable crops. The review further highlights the importance of appropriate irrigation scheduling, fertilizer application rates, and nutrient management strategies for achieving optimum crop performance and resource conservation. Despite its considerable advantages, the large-scale adoption of fertigation remains constrained by challenges such as emitter clogging, high initial installation costs, maintenance requirements, salinity buildup, and improper nutrient scheduling. The article also discusses practical management approaches to overcome these limitations and enhance the long-term sustainability of fertigation systems. Overall, fertigation offers substantial potential to improve agricultural productivity, resource-use efficiency, economic returns, and environmental sustainability in modern vegetable cultivation under changing climatic conditions.
Introduction
The global population is projected to reach 10 billion by 2050, placing unprecedented pressure on the demand for food, fiber, and fuel worldwide (United Nations, 2021). This increase, driven by rapid population growth and accelerating economic development, has intensified pressure on critical natural resources, particularly water and soil (Cetin and Akalp, 2019). Agriculture remains the most water-intensive sector globally, accounting for approximately 70% of total freshwater consumption. However, a substantial proportion of water used in agricultural activities is lost due to inefficient management practices, limiting its effective utilization for productive purposes.
Water security is intrinsically linked to both energy and food security, and all three sectors are increasingly threatened by the escalating impacts of climate change. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) explicitly recognize water scarcity associated with global warming as a critical concern, particularly under Climate Action (SDG 13) and Clean Water and Sanitation (SDG 6) (Baig et al., 2025). Beyond its broader socioeconomic implications, water scarcity constitutes a major abiotic stress factor, along with drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, and mineral toxicity, with profound effects on plant physiological processes, growth, and overall agricultural productivity (Bharali et al., 2024).
Compounding this challenge, the indiscriminate application of fertilizers represents an equally significant threat to sustainable agriculture. Intensive cropping systems, coupled with the disproportionate use of high-analysis fertilizers, have resulted in widespread nutrient imbalances and declining soil fertility (Apoorva and Kundlas, 2024). Addressing these interconnected constraints requires the adoption of precision-based agronomic interventions capable of optimizing both water and nutrient use efficiency simultaneously.
In this context, drip fertigation has emerged as a scientifically advanced irrigation strategy that integrates drip irrigation with site-specific fertilizer application. This approach facilitates the precise, controlled, and synchronized delivery of water and nutrients directly to the crop root zone, thereby aligning nutrient supply with crop demand at different growth stages (Zheng et al., 2023). The technology is particularly advantageous in arid and semi-arid regions where freshwater availability is limited. By confining inputs to the rhizosphere, drip fertigation substantially reduces nutrient losses through leaching and surface runoff while improving nutrient use efficiency (NUE), soil health, and environmental sustainability (Mankotia et al., 2025).
Vegetable crops, owing to their high water and nutrient requirements, can benefit considerably from optimized resource management aimed at enhancing productivity while preserving environmental integrity. Drip fertigation has transformed water and nutrient management practices by facilitating efficient and precise utilization of agricultural inputs across a wide range of vegetable crops (Lakhiar et al., 2024). Nevertheless, despite its increasing adoption, significant gaps remain in understanding the effects of fertigation on soil nutrient dynamics and the growth and developmental processes of vegetable crops. This knowledge gap underscores the need for focused and systematic research to optimize fertigation practices and ensure sustainable productivity, particularly in water-scarce regions.
Review methodology
This review article was prepared through a comprehensive analysis of published scientific literature related to fertigation, drip irrigation, precision agriculture, nutrient management, and vegetable crop production. Relevant peer-reviewed research articles, review papers, technical reports, conference proceedings, and book chapters published between 2008 and 2026 were collected from major scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and ResearchGate.
The literature search was conducted using keywords such as “fertigation, ” “drip fertigation, ” “precision irrigation, ” “water use efficiency, ” “nutrient use efficiency, ” “vegetable crops, ” “sustainable agriculture, ” and “smart irrigation systems.” Studies focusing on the effects of fertigation on crop growth, yield, quality attributes, nutrient dynamics, water productivity, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability were critically evaluated and synthesized. Priority was given to recent publications, field-based experiments, and studies conducted under diverse agroclimatic conditions to ensure the inclusion of updated scientific evidence.
The collected information was systematically categorized into major themes, including principles of fertigation, fertigation methods, crop growth and yield responses, quality improvement, nutrient and water use efficiency, economic aspects, environmental impacts, emerging technologies, challenges, and future prospects. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of fertigation in sustainable vegetable production and to identify research gaps and future directions for precision nutrient and water management.
Limitations
Despite extensive literature coverage, this review has certain limitations. The findings presented are based primarily on published studies available in selected scientific databases; therefore, some relevant unpublished data, regional reports, and non-English publications may not have been included. Variations in experimental conditions, including crop species, climatic conditions, soil characteristics, irrigation methods, fertilizer sources, and management practices, may also influence the comparability of findings among studies.
In addition, because fertigation technologies and precision agriculture tools continue to evolve rapidly, some recently developed innovations may not yet be adequately represented in the available literature. Therefore, further long-term, location-specific, and multidisciplinary research is required to strengthen understanding and improve the practical applicability of fertigation under diverse agricultural systems.
Concepts and methods of fertigation in modern agriculture
Fertigation refers to the application of water-soluble fertilizers through irrigation systems, enabling the precise delivery of water and nutrients directly to the crop root zone (Çetin and Akalp, 2019). This approach improves nutrient- and water-use efficiency, reduces nutrient losses, and enhances crop productivity (Wang et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2025; Sureshkumar et al., 2016). The components, operation, and key requirements of a typical fertigation system are illustrated in Figure 1, and nine commonly used fertigation methods are summarized in Table 1.
Figure 1
Table 1
| Types of fertigation | Description | Advantages | Recommended situations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Continuous fertigation | Fertilizer is continuously injected into the irrigation water throughout the entire irrigation cycle. | Provides a consistent nutrient supply, which is beneficial for crops with high nutrient demands. | High-value crops or sensitive plants that require constant nutrient levels for optimal growth. |
| Proportional fertigation | Fertilizer is applied at a consistent ratio to the irrigation water flow rate. This means that as water flow varies, the amount of fertilizer remains proportional. | Maintains nutrient balance regardless of variations in water flow, ensuring even distribution. | Systems with variable flow rates, allowing precise nutrient control without recalibration. |
| Pulse fertigation | Fertilizer is injected in pulses at specific intervals during the irrigation cycle, rather than continuously. Each pulse delivers a set amount of fertilizer. | Allows nutrients to be applied in controlled bursts, which can enhance nutrient absorption and minimize leaching. | Sandy or highly permeable soils where nutrient leaching may be a concern. |
| Sequential fertigation | Different nutrients are applied in a sequential order during various stages of crop growth or irrigation cycles. Each nutrient is provided separately based on the crop’s growth stage. | Allows for targeted nutrient management based on crop growth stages, optimizing nutrient uptake and reducing waste. | Crops with specific nutrient requirements at different growth stages (e.g., nitrogen during vegetative growth and potassium during fruiting). |
| Variable rate fertigation | Fertilizer rates are adjusted based on the requirements of specific zones within a field, often using sensor data and variable rate technology (VRT). | Tailors nutrient delivery to the precise needs of each area, improving efficiency and reducing excess use of fertilizers. | Large fields with variable soil conditions, or crops with uneven nutrient requirements. |
| Direct injection fertigation | Fertilizer is injected directly into the main irrigation line, often using an injection pump, with no prior mixing. | Reduces the need for a holding tank or mixing equipment, allowing quick adjustments to nutrient levels. | Smaller farms or systems where rapid response to nutrient needs is required. |
| Three-phase fertigation | This method divides the irrigation cycle into three distinct phases: pre-fertilization, fertilization, and post-fertilization. • Pre-Fertilization Phase: Water is applied without fertilizer to wet the soil. • Fertilization Phase: Fertilizer is injected to deliver nutrients. • Post-Fertilization Phase: Water is applied again to flush any remaining fertilizer toward the root zone. | Ensures that nutrients reach the plant roots effectively while preventing salt buildup near the emitters. | Sensitive crops and areas prone to salinity issues. |
| Nutrient solution recirculation | In closed systems (typically greenhouse settings), the nutrient solution is recirculated to reduce waste and optimize nutrient delivery. | Maximizes nutrient and water efficiency, reducing costs and environmental impact. | Controlled environments like hydroponics or greenhouse drip systems, where resource conservation is a priority. |
| Single-nutrient fertigation | A single nutrient (e.g., nitrogen or potassium) is delivered independently, usually due to specific crop needs or nutrient deficiencies identified through soil testing. | Allows targeted supplementation without affecting the balance of other nutrients. | Correcting specific nutrient deficiencies or when particular nutrients are required in higher amounts. |
Different methods of fertigation.
Basic requirements for fertigation
A. Fertigation system
A fertigation system consists of two main segments: the suction segment, which injects the fertilizer solution into the irrigation water, and the delivery segment, which distributes the nutrient-enriched water to the crop root zone. In drip fertigation, the system includes three major components: water supply and pumping equipment, fertilizer injection equipment, and distribution equipment (pipes, laterals, and emitters).
Venturi injector
A Venturi injector creates a pressure difference in the main pipeline, drawing fertilizer solution into the irrigation water. It is simple, affordable, and suitable for small-scale farming.
Fertilizer tank
A fertilizer tank is connected to the irrigation system, where water passes through the tank and carries dissolved nutrients into the main pipeline. The fertilizer concentration gradually decreases as fertigation progresses.
Fertilizer pump
A fertilizer pump injects nutrient solution from a non-pressurized tank into the irrigation water at a controlled rate, ensuring uniform nutrient supply to plants.
B. Fertilizers
Fertilizers represent the second basic requirement for fertigation. When selecting fertilizers for use in fertigation systems, water-soluble fertilizers are considered integral, as they offer precise nutrient delivery and enhanced crop performance. When choosing fertilizers for fertigation, it’s important to consider two factors:
the solubility of the fertilizer in the water source, as irrigation water may contain chemical constituents that can interact with dissolved fertilizers and
the acidity of the fertilizer solution, which can corrode irrigation system components. Fertilization mostly uses nitrogen and potassium-based fertilizers. Phosphorus and micro-nutrient formulations can be utilized with irrigation water that has a pH below 6.5. To prevent precipitation difficulties, avoid mixing P fertilizers with calcium nitrate and iron.
Selectivity and compatibility of fertilizers
Liquid fertilizers are best suited for fertigation as they are easily dissolved in irrigation water. Preparation of fertilizer solutions for fertigation requires mixing of some fertilizers. Understanding compatibility is essential to prevent precipitation, nutrient loss, and equipment damage. Water-soluble fertilizers used in fertigation are illustrated in Figure 2, while the fertilizer compatibility chart is presented in Figure 3.
Figure 2
Figure 3
Key incompatible combinations
The incompatibility details of these fertilizer combinations are presented in Table 2. The following fertilizer combinations should NEVER be mixed together:
Table 2
| Fertilizer | Should not be mixed with | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Calcium nitrate | Any phosphates or sulphates | Precipitation of insoluble calcium phosphate/sulphate |
| Magnesium sulphate | Di- or mono-ammonium phosphate | Formation of insoluble magnesium phosphate precipitate |
| Phosphoric acid | Iron, zinc, copper & manganese sulphates | Precipitation of metal phosphate compounds, clogging emitters |
Incompatibility details.
Fertigation: a revolutionary approach to enhancing plant growth parameters
Fertigation has emerged as an efficient nutrient management strategy that improves plant growth and development through the precise and timely application of water-soluble fertilizers via irrigation water. By enabling real-time adjustment of nutrient concentrations and nutrient ratios according to crop growth stages and environmental conditions, fertigation enhances nutrient availability and uptake, thereby improving key growth attributes such as plant height, root development, shoot elongation, leaf area, branching, and overall plant vigor. The mechanism of growth enhancement through fertigation is illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Several studies have demonstrated the positive influence of fertigation on vegetative growth in vegetable crops. Under lateritic sandy loam soil conditions at the Precision Farming Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kharagpur, fertigation with 100 g nitrogen, 60 g phosphorus, and 60 g potassium per plant applied at seven-day intervals recorded maximum plant height, internodal length, number of functional leaves, and leaf area index in okra (Santosh et al., 2025). Similarly, fertigation with 100% recommended fertilizer dose (150:60:80 kg ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O) significantly increased vine length, number of leaves, and leaf area in pointed gourd compared with conventional soil application (Nayak et al., 2018).
In chilli (Capsicum annuum L.), application of RDF (100 kg N, 50 kg P2O5, and 50 kg K2O ha-1) under irrigation at 1.0 PE improved growth parameters, including plant height and leaf number (Chaurasiya and Sahu, 2016). In cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L.), application of RDF (225 kg N, 75 kg P2O5, and 75 kg K2O ha-1) with irrigation at a flow rate of 2.0 L h-1 under 100 kPa pressure (KCP 0.75–1.25) significantly improved growth parameters, including leaf number per crop and above-ground biomass (AGB) (Bozkurt et al., 2011). Drip fertigation with RDF (170:85:85 kg N:P2O5:K2O ha-1) applied twice weekly enhanced leaf chlorophyll content, nitrogen status, and overall plant growth in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) (Zhang et al., 2014). In okra, application of 125:75:63 kg NPK ha-1 through fertigation produced taller plants, increased leaf production, and enhanced branching compared with conventional fertilizer application methods (Padmanabha et al., 2018). Likewise, increasing fertigation levels from 33% to 100% of the recommended fertilizer dose significantly improved leaf number and relative leaf water content in cauliflower (Kapoor et al., 2014). Subsurface drip fertigation has also shown considerable potential for improving root growth and nutrient uptake. Application of the full recommended dose of N:P:K (50:50:50 kg ha-1) through subsurface drip fertigation using laterals placed at 10 cm depth significantly enhanced root length and leaf production in amaranthus compared with conventional soil application (Joseph and Priya, 2013). Furthermore, splitting the recommended NPK dose (100:50:50 kg ha-1) into nine fertigation applications significantly improved plant height (48.57 cm), number of shoots per hill (3.49), and tuber yield (42.83 t ha-1) compared with single basal fertilizer application (Chongtham, 2016). Drip fertigation also promotes favorable soil moisture conditions and extensive root development, thereby improving nutrient absorption and plant growth. Alternate partial root-zone drip irrigation enhanced shoot growth, root growth, and N, P, and K uptake compared with conventional drip fertigation (Wang et al., 2022). Improved growth responses under fertigation may further be associated with enhanced nitrogen metabolism, increased carbohydrate synthesis, amino acid production, and protein formation, which collectively accelerate cell division and enlargement (Nikzad et al., 2020). In tomato, fertigation at 200:250:250 kg ha-1 combined with 75% potassium along with full nitrogen and phosphorus application resulted in maximum plant height, root length, and plant dry weight (Reddy et al., 2022). Overall, fertigation significantly enhances vegetative growth and crop performance by improving nutrient availability, uptake efficiency, and physiological activity in vegetable crops.
Harnessing the power of fertigation for superior yield
Substantial improvements in crop productivity have been reported with the adoption of drip irrigation integrated with fertigation practices. Crop yield is strongly influenced by carbohydrate production and translocation, nutrient and water uptake, and prevailing environmental conditions during crop growth. Drip fertigation creates favorable moisture conditions within the root zone, enabling efficient utilization of water and nutrients from the wetted soil volume, thereby improving crop performance and yield. Fertigation with 150:100:150 kg NPK ha-1 recorded the highest fruit yield per plant (5.53 kg) and estimated yield per hectare (37.11 t ha-1) compared with conventional methods (Rajalingam et al., 2022). Similarly, dry chilli yield under drip fertigation was reported to be 27.87–52.4% higher than that obtained under furrow irrigation combined with conventional fertilization practices (Reddy et al., 2016). Chilli yield was also found to increase by 14.84–61.55% under fertigation with 125:100:125 kg N:P2O5:K2O ha-1 compared with control treatments (Nair et al., 2023). In capsicum, the highest fruit yield was recorded under drip irrigation scheduled at 100% evaporation replenishment (EPR) combined with 75% of the recommended nitrogen dose (Patil and Das, 2015). In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), application of 75% of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) (262.2 kg N, 40.4 kg P2O5, and 90.5 kg K2O ha-1) through surface drip fertigation significantly enhanced fruit yield (Kalanjiyam and Manickam, 2015). Optimal daily fertigation maintained relatively stable soil moisture, electrical conductivity, and mineral nitrogen levels in surface soils, promoted fine root growth (<1.5 mm diameter) in cucumber, and ultimately increased economic yield by 6.2–8.3% (Liang et al., 2014). Yield improvements ranging from 38.2% to 65.8% were reported under drip irrigation compared with furrow irrigation, with tomato recording the highest increase (58.7%) (Jha et al., 2017). Likewise, drip fertigation increased onion seed productivity by 12–74% compared with conventional methods (Dingre et al., 2012). Combined drip irrigation and fertigation produced cauliflower and chilli yields of 280 and 170 q ha-1, respectively (Singh, 2017). These integrated systems consistently outperformed traditional irrigation methods such as furrow, border, and flood irrigation (Khashaei et al., 2025). Enhanced productivity under fertigation is primarily attributed to improved nutrient utilization during critical crop growth stages, reduced nutrient losses through leaching and runoff, and increased fertilizer use efficiency through the precise application of water-soluble fertilizers (Nandeshwar and Bharad, 2019). Supporting these findings, significantly higher chilli yield (5.03 t ha-1) was recorded under fertigation compared with 3.03 t ha-1 under furrow irrigation with farmers’ practice due to a more consistent supply of water and nutrients (Reddy et al., 2016). Similarly, tomato yield increased by 18% under fertigation with 100% of the recommended fertilizer dose compared with conventional methods (Ayyar, 2019). Brinjal yield increased by 19–35% under drip fertigation compared with furrow irrigation (Tukaram, 2020). Substantial yield enhancement in okra ranging from 60% to 167% was also reported under drip fertigation and was attributed to balanced and precise nutrient application through the drip system (Chandra and Singh, 2019). The highest pooled onion yield (35.60 t ha-1) was achieved with application of the full recommended fertilizer dose of 110:40:60:30 kg NPKS ha-1 through fertigation (Jeevitha et al., 2022). In chilli, the highest fruit weight was recorded under fertigation with 263:60:345 kg NPK ha-1, which was superior to the conventional fertilizer recommendation of 75:40:25 kg ha-1 (Das et al., 2026). Similarly, the highest cucumber yield (66, 712 kg ha-1) was obtained with 80% of the recommended fertilizer dose applied through fertigation (Anjum et al., 2022). The yield advantage associated with fertigation may also be linked to enhanced photosynthetic activity, increased leaf area expansion, and efficient translocation of assimilates towards reproductive organs. In contrast, lower yields under furrow irrigation combined with soil-applied fertilizers are generally associated with reduced nutrient uptake, lower metabolite synthesis, impaired assimilate translocation, and moisture stress-induced reductions in cell division and elongation resulting from wider irrigation intervals.
Impact of fertigation on quality parameters
The quality characteristics of vegetables comprise several attributes that determine their overall value, marketability, and consumer acceptability. Application of water-soluble fertilizers at a higher level of 263:60:345 kg N2O52O ha-1 produced chilli with superior quality attributes, including increased oleoresin and ascorbic acid contents (Das et al., 2025). The increase in vitamin C content under higher fertilizer doses may be attributed to enhanced nitrogen uptake, which stimulates enzyme activity involved in amino acid synthesis and subsequently promotes ascorbic acid accumulation in the fruits. Similarly, the higher oleoresin content observed under these treatments may be associated with enhanced synthesis and translocation of photosynthates into fruits, facilitated by improved nutrient uptake under optimal soil moisture conditions maintained through drip fertigation, collectively contributing to superior biochemical quality of the harvested produce. The increase in total soluble sugars may be attributed to the application of recommended fertigation doses, which enhance the absorption and uptake of essential macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), thereby improving nutrient availability to plants. These nutrients facilitate the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (starch) into simpler sugars, enhance metabolic activity in fruits, and ultimately increase total sugar content (Sneha et al., 2025). Experimental findings demonstrated that fertigation with 80% of the recommended NPK dose through drip irrigation produced significantly higher values of total soluble solids (TSS) (4.85%), vitamin C (17.4 mg 100 g-1), lycopene content (7.13 mg 100 g-1), and total sugar content (3.80%) (Gupta et al., 2015). The increase in reducing sugars during storage may be attributed to the conversion of starch and polysaccharides into simple sugars, whereas the subsequent decline may result from the utilization of sugars through evapotranspiration and other biochemical processes. The increase in sugar concentration may also occur due to the breakdown of complex polymers into simpler compounds through hydrolytic enzyme activity (Moneruzzaman et al., 2008). Mineral nutrients, particularly phosphorus and potassium, play an important role in enhancing soluble solid content and improving the TSS ratio in fruit crops through increased activity of enzymes such as sucrose synthase (SS) and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS). These processes promote greater accumulation of metabolites such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose, thereby increasing total soluble solids content (Kumawat et al., 2017). Research consistently demonstrates that controlled irrigation and fertigation significantly improve crop quality in tomato, pepper, cucumber, and muskmelon, resulting in notable increases in sugar content, organic acids, and vitamin C levels (Zhao et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2022). However, excessive nitrogen application under micro-irrigation systems may reduce soluble sugar and vitamin C contents, highlighting the importance of balanced nutrient management (Chen et al., 2024). Compared with conventional fertilization methods, modern fertigation techniques provide more precise nutrient delivery, reducing nutrient imbalances and improving overall crop quality (Jia et al., 2024). Collectively, these findings demonstrate the potential of precision fertigation systems to enhance crop quality while emphasizing the importance of balanced fertilization practices to avoid adverse effects on produce quality.
Water and nutrient use efficiency in drip fertigation
Nutrient use efficiency and nutrient uptake are key indicators of fertilizer application effectiveness. The availability of optimal nutrient concentrations within the active root zone, together with adequate moisture in the rhizosphere, are the primary factors governing maximum nutrient uptake by crops. Fertigation regulates crop growth through the precise and controlled delivery of water and nutrients directly to the root zone, thereby improving nutrient uptake, enhancing nutrient and water use efficiency, and enabling crops to better adapt to varying climatic conditions (Singh and Singh, 2026). The process of increased nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) through fertigation is depicted in Figure 5. Considerable research evidence supports the superiority of fertigation over conventional fertilizer application methods. Maximum nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium use efficiency in broccoli was achieved when 50% of the recommended fertilizer dose (100:75:75 kg ha-1 N:P:K) was applied through fertigation (Kapoor and Sandal, 2019). Supporting these findings, drip fertigation resulted in fertilizer savings of up to 40% compared with conventional fertilizer application methods (Sathya et al., 2008). Increasing fertigation levels progressively improved soil nutrient status, and judicious nutrient application through drip fertigation enhanced overall nutrient accumulation in the soil, thereby maintaining greater nutrient availability than conventional soil application methods (Subramanian et al., 2012). Similarly, split fertilizer application through drip irrigation significantly minimized nitrogen and potassium leaching losses and reduced phosphorus fixation in the soil (Basavaraju et al., 2014). Improved fertigation management strategies can reduce water and fertilizer use, minimize nitrate (NO3-) leaching, maintain crop yield, and assist in controlling soil salinity under conditions of limited availability of good-quality irrigation water (Magan et al., 2018). Micro-fertilization reduces fertilizer application by 30–50% and improves nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and soil health by minimizing nutrient leaching beyond the root zone (Lu et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2021). In brinjal (Solanum melongena L.), application of 80% RDF (150 kg N, 50 kg P2O5, and 50 kg K2O ha-1) at an IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 with an irrigation level of 0.6 PE and plant spacing of 175 cm × 50 cm × 50 cm significantly increased total N, P, and K uptake and improved fertilizer-use efficiency (Ugade et al., 2014). Collectively, these findings suggest that nutrient use efficiency is inversely associated with nutrient application rates and tends to improve over time owing to the contribution of inherent soil fertility. Beyond agronomic benefits, drip fertigation plays a vital role in preventing soil degradation and environmental contamination. Excessive leaching of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus disrupts soil nutrient balance and progressively reduces soil fertility. Moreover, nutrient losses through leaching contribute to environmental concerns, particularly eutrophication, wherein nutrient-rich runoff stimulates excessive algal growth in water bodies and adversely affects aquatic ecosystems (Messiga et al., 2020). By substantially reducing nutrient losses, drip fertigation not only supports long-term soil fertility but also serves as an environmentally sustainable strategy for minimizing nutrient pollution. Water resources are becoming increasingly scarce across many regions of the world due to rapid population growth, the intensifying effects of climate change, and continued agricultural expansion in arid and semi-arid regions. Consequently, improving water conservation practices and enhancing water use efficiency (WUE) have become global priorities. This need is particularly critical for vegetable crops, which are among the most water-demanding agricultural commodities yet play a central role in global food and nutritional security. Water use efficiency in tomato was reported to be 52–87% higher under drip fertigation than under furrow irrigation combined with surface-applied fertilizers (Tanaskovik et al., 2011). Comparison of WUE across drip-fertigated treatments and furrow-irrigated controls demonstrated that optimized fertilizer doses improved crop water uptake and ultimately enhanced yield. Drip fertigation at 70% of the recommended fertilizer dose recorded the highest water use efficiency of 5.24 q ha-1 cm-1 compared with 2.69 q ha-1 cm-1 under full fertilizer application with furrow irrigation (Kumari et al., 2014). Furthermore, WUE under the best drip-fertigated treatment was 94.79% higher than that of conventional farmer-managed furrow irrigation. Application of 100% recommended fertigation (175:125:300 kg NPK ha-1) recorded the highest water use efficiency of 6, 167.78 kg ha-1 cm-1 (Chand, 2014). These findings highlight the advantage of fertigation, as regulated nitrogen application not only improves plant growth and yield but also enhances water utilization efficiency. Adequate fertilization has been widely reported to improve WUE. Nitrogen is generally considered the most limiting nutrient for irrigated vegetable production under arid and semi-arid conditions. Insufficient nitrogen supply not only limits crop growth and yield but also restricts efficient utilization of soil moisture and essential nutrients. The positive interaction between water and nitrogen in enhancing crop productivity has been demonstrated in several vegetable crops, particularly under arid environments. Negative pressure fertigation improved water productivity by increasing water use efficiency by 9.9–30.5% while reducing irrigation water use compared with conventional drip fertigation in greenhouse tomato production (Li et al., 2017). Likewise, irrigation at 80% ET0 combined with 360 kg ha-1 nitrogen achieved the highest water use efficiency (55.8 kg m-3) and improved cucumber yield under greenhouse fertigation conditions (Wang et al., 2019). These responses may be attributed to the efficient delivery of water through fertigation, which minimizes deep percolation losses within the soil profile. In addition, fertigation facilitates year-round cultivation, promotes a more uniform crop stand, and improves the productivity and quality of off-season vegetable production. Drip irrigation also recorded higher water productivity, with more than a fivefold increase observed in potato and cauliflower (Jha et al., 2017). These findings highlight the potential of precision irrigation to improve water use efficiency and crop productivity while emphasizing the importance of context-specific optimization strategies.
Figure 5
Cost economics of fertigation
Drip fertigation offers substantial economic benefits by reducing the quantities of water and fertilizer required for optimal crop growth. Traditional fertilization methods often involve large, single-dose nutrient applications, which can lead to considerable nutrient losses and inefficient plant uptake. In contrast, drip fertigation facilitates precise and continuous nutrient delivery, thereby reducing overall fertilizer costs by 20–30% (Villalobos et al., 2024). Application of drip fertigation at 80% of the recommended nitrogen dose combined with an irrigation water-to-cumulative pan evaporation (IW/CPE) ratio of 0.80 recorded the highest okra yield, representing an increase of 39.39% over the control treatment and resulting in the highest benefit–cost (B:C) ratio of 2.25 (Sharma and Kaushal, 2015). Although drip fertigation systems require relatively high initial capital investment, particularly when water-soluble fertilizers are used, their economic feasibility can be justified by their longer operational lifespan, improved crop productivity, and higher net returns compared with conventional fertilization methods. Supporting this observation, improved nutrient uptake and enhanced nutrient use efficiency associated with water-soluble fertilizers contributed to significantly higher crop yields and ultimately generated greater gross income for growers despite their higher procurement costs (Narayanamoorthy et al., 2018). In a study on onion production economics, application of 100% of the recommended dose of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium through fertigation recorded the highest benefit–cost ratio compared with conventional fertilization practices (Krishna et al., 2021). In cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.), application of 100% recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) (254.4 kg N, 19.1 kg P2O5, and 324 kg K2O ha-1) through daily fertigation under surface irrigation at an IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 recorded the highest benefit–cost (B:C) ratio of 3.03 (Vasu and Reddy, 2013). However, contrasting findings were reported in capsicum, where drip fertigation produced higher marketable yield than non-fertigated treatments but resulted in a lower benefit–cost ratio due to the substantially higher cost of water-soluble fertilizers compared with conventional fertilizer sources (Kumar et al., 2017).Overall, the economic performance of drip fertigation depends on balancing initial investment costs with long-term gains in resource-use efficiency, productivity, and profitability.
The future of fertigation: precision, sustainability, and smart agriculture
Fertigation, the method of administering nutrients via irrigation systems, is set for substantial progress in the next years. The future of fertigation is likely to be defined by enhanced accuracy via integration of smart agricultural technology and automation. Sustainability will be a primary emphasis, with initiatives aimed at minimizing nutrient runoff and enhancing water conservation (Biswas et al., 2026). The use of organic and bio-based fertilizers is anticipated to increase, in conjunction with advancements in controlled-release technologies and tailored nutrient formulations (Yadav et al., 2026). Artificial intelligence and big data will enhance fertigation schedules and formulations via data-driven decision-making. As fertigation extends into emerging sectors such as indoor and vertical farming, it will progressively integrate with renewable energy sources to improve sustainability and save expenses. These innovations seek to enhance agricultural productivity, optimize resource use, and promote environmental sustainability (Lin et al., 2020).
Challenges and limitations
While drip fertigation offers significant advantages in water and nutrient efficiency, it also presents several challenges that can affect its adoption and effectiveness. The most common obstacles include system clogging, high initial investment, and ongoing maintenance demands. Understanding these challenges and the strategies to address them is key to maximizing the potential of this technology (Kaviyazhagan et al., 2025).
System clogging
System clogging is one of the most prevalent challenges in drip fertigation, particularly when water sources contain impurities or when fertilizers leave residues. Clogging can arise from physical, chemical, or biological factors, each capable of obstructing emitters and disrupting the uniform delivery of water and nutrients (Shi et al., 2023).
Physical clogging is typically caused by particulate matter such as sand or silt. Chemical clogging results from mineral deposits, most commonly calcium carbonate, that precipitate and block emitters. Biological clogging, on the other hand, stems from algae and microbial growth within the system, particularly when organic materials are present in the water source (Tatiya et al., 2020).
Beyond reducing water flow, clogging leads to uneven nutrient distribution, which can cause inconsistent crop growth and lower yields. Resolving these issues requires frequent monitoring and cleaning, which is both labor-intensive and costly. In regions with limited access to clean water, these maintenance demands can discourage farmers from adopting drip fertigation altogether (Junejo et al., 2025).
Initial investment and maintenance requirements
The upfront cost of establishing a drip fertigation system can be substantial, posing a significant barrier especially for small-scale farmers. Expenses typically include drip lines, emitters, filters, pumps, fertigation equipment, and installation costs. Although long-term gains in yield and resource efficiency can offset these expenditures, the initial financial burden remains a deterrent for many (Mushataq et al., 2024).
Nutrient leaching and environmental concerns
Although fertigation improves nutrient use efficiency, excessive fertilizer application and poor scheduling can still result in nitrate leaching and groundwater contamination. Recent simulation studies reported that improper fertigation management may increase nitrate movement beyond the root zone, thereby increasing environmental risks and reducing nitrogen use efficiency (Chen et al., 2025).
Water quality and salinity problems
The quality of irrigation water strongly influences fertigation performance. Irrigation water containing high concentrations of dissolved salts, bicarbonates, calcium, and suspended particles can accelerate precipitation and emitter clogging. In water-scarce regions, poor water quality further intensifies agricultural challenges by causing stunted crop growth, soil degradation, and greater susceptibility to pests and diseases, ultimately reducing system resilience and agricultural productivity (Biswas et al., 2025). Continuous use of saline irrigation water under drip systems may gradually increase soil electrical conductivity and adversely affect crop growth and nutrient uptake. (Abdelsalam et al., 2024) reported that saline irrigation water significantly affected emitter hydraulic performance and increased clogging ratio in drip irrigation systems.
Solutions to common issues
A range of practical strategies has been developed to address the key challenges of drip fertigation. To combat clogging, investing in high-quality filtration systems is essential particularly where water contains particulate matter or organic materials. Sand filters, screen filters, and disc filters are all effective at removing suspended solids and reducing clogging risk. Periodically flushing drip lines and treating them with mild acids or anti-clogging agents can further prevent mineral buildup and extend the system’s lifespan (Liu et al., 2021).
For biological clogging, disinfectants such as chlorine or hydrogen peroxide can be applied to control microbial growth. Selecting high-quality water-soluble fertilizers (WSFs) that do not precipitate helps prevent chemical clogging, ensuring a consistent and unobstructed flow of nutrients through the system (Giddings et al., 2016).
Conclusion
Drip fertigation has emerged as a scientifically validated and agronomically superior strategy for the sustainable management of water and nutrients in vegetable production. The evidence reviewed in this paper consistently demonstrates that the precise delivery of water and nutrients to the active root zone significantly enhances plant growth, crop yield, quality attributes, and resource use efficiency across a wide range of vegetable crops. Documented reductions in fertilizer requirements of 20–40% and water savings of up to 50% relative to conventional irrigation underscore the technology’s considerable potential in addressing global water scarcity and soil fertility degradation, while simultaneously contributing to the mitigation of environmental threats such as nutrient leaching and eutrophication.
Despite these advantages, challenges related to system clogging, high initial capital investment, and ongoing maintenance requirements continue to impede adoption, particularly among smallholder farmers. Addressing these constraints through improved filtration technologies, cost-effective system designs, and targeted policy interventions remains essential to broadening the accessibility and impact of this technology.
In conclusion, drip fertigation represents an indispensable tool for achieving food security and environmental sustainability under conditions of increasing resource scarcity. Future research should focus on optimizing crop-specific fertigation schedules, reducing system costs, and integrating precision agriculture technologies to further enhance the scalability and efficiency of drip fertigation across diverse agroclimatic conditions.
Statements
Author contributions
AD: Writing – original draft. RN: Writing – review & editing. RS: Writing – review & editing. NL: Writing – review & editing. TV: Writing – review & editing. RB: Writing – review & editing. KM: Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
Acknowledgments
The authors are highly indebted to the researchers whose findings are involved in preparing this manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Summary
Keywords
drip fertigation, sustainable agriculture, vegetable production, irrigation, nutrient use efficiency
Citation
Das A, Nair RVR, Swaroop R, Leno N, V. T, B. R and M. K. K (2026) Drip fertigation for vegetable production: a comprehensive review of crop performance, nutrient use efficiency and sustainable resource management. Front. Agron. 8:1823187. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2026.1823187
Received
09 March 2026
Revised
12 June 2026
Accepted
30 June 2026
Published
13 August 2026
Volume
8 - 2026
Edited by
Fucang Zhang, Northwest A&F University, China
Reviewed by
Kesipeddy Naganjali, Professor Jayashankar Telangana Agricultural University, India
Manisha Jailia, Banasthali University, India
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Das, Nair, Swaroop, Leno, V., B. and M. K..
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Rekha V. R. Nair, rekha.vr@kau.in
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.