Intercropping dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) with Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra under deficit irrigation: impacts on soil physicochemical properties, water-use efficiency and crop growth

Abstract

Introduction:

Water scarcity is a major constraint limiting agricultural productivity in semi-arid regions. Developing sustainable production systems that improve water-use efficiency while maintaining soil physicochemical quality is therefore essential. This study evaluated the combined effects of cropping systems and deficit irrigation on instantaneous water-use efficiency (iWUE), soil physicochemical properties, nutrient dynamics, crop growth, and productivity in dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)-based intercropping systems with Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra.

Methods:

A field experiment was conducted over two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25) using three cropping systems and three irrigation regimes supplying 100% (full irrigation, FI), 75% (moderate deficit irrigation, DI), and 50% (severe DI) of crop water requirements. Measurements included iWUE, soil physicochemical properties, exchangeable cations, crop growth, biomass production, and yield.

Results:

Irrigation level had a greater influence on iWUE than cropping system. Severe deficit irrigation (50% DI) significantly reduced crop growth, biomass accumulation, and yield, whereas full irrigation (100% FI) generally produced the highest performance. Moderate deficit irrigation (75% DI) maintained satisfactory productivity while reducing water input, demonstrating its potential as a water-saving strategy. Both cropping system and irrigation regime significantly affected soil physicochemical properties and exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, and K). Intercropping improved soil conditions by reducing bulk density and enhancing soil pH and nutrient cycling compared with sole cropping. However, dry bean-based systems maintained higher exchangeable cation concentrations and cation exchange capacity than C. gynandra-based systems. Soil nutrient availability declined progressively with increasing water deficit. Sole dry bean under full irrigation recorded the highest growth and yield. Although intercropping reduced dry bean yield compared with sole cropping, the dry bean + C. myriocarpus intercrop consistently outperformed the dry bean + C. gynandra intercrop under water-limited conditions.

Discussion:

The findings demonstrate that irrigation management plays a more decisive role than cropping system in determining water-use efficiency and crop productivity under semi-arid conditions. Moderate deficit irrigation (75% DI), when combined with compatible intercropping systems, particularly dry bean + C. myriocarpus, offers a practical strategy for conserving irrigation water while sustaining crop productivity and improving soil physicochemical quality. These results support the adoption of integrated water and cropping management practices to enhance the resilience and sustainability of crop production in water-limited environments.

1 Introduction

Agricultural production systems worldwide are increasingly under pressure to meet rising food demand while simultaneously conserving natural resources. In response to growing food security needs, the intensive use of natural resources, particularly fertile soils, have intensified across production systems (Pozza and Field, 2020). This has led to widespread soil degradation, including accelerated erosion, nutrient depletion, and the deterioration of key soil physicochemical properties (Megerssa and Bekere, 2019). These challenges are especially severe in arid and semi-arid regions, where fragile ecosystems are highly vulnerable to inappropriate land management practices. Consequently, there is an urgent need to adopt sustainable agricultural strategies, such as intercropping, to restore soil physicochemical properties and improve water-use efficiency (Kabato et al., 2025; Tefera et al., 2025).

Climate-smart agriculture promotes diversified cropping systems that integrate complementary crop species to maximise productivity while conserving natural resources and sustaining ecosystem services (Sahu et al., 2020). Within these systems, intercropping, particularly the combination of legumes and cereals, has received considerable attention due to its potential to improve soil physicochemical properties, enhance nutrient cycling, increase water-use efficiency, and boost overall system productivity (Raza et al., 2025; Kumawat et al., 2022). Moreover, intercropping is particularly beneficial for smallholder farmers, as it offers both agronomic and nutritional advantages while reducing vulnerability to environmental and economic stresses (Toker et al., 2024).

In addition to declining soil quality, water scarcity has emerged as one of the most significant constraints to agricultural production. Water deficit stress impairs plant growth by restricting leaf expansion, reducing photosynthesis, water-use efficiency and ultimately lowering crop yields (Bhattacharya, 2021; Cheng et al., 2021). These challenges are expected to intensify under climate change, which is projected to increase temperatures, alter precipitation patterns, and heighten the frequency and severity of drought events (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2023). In sub-Saharan Africa, water scarcity is already a major constraint to agricultural production, particularly for subsistence and smallholder farmers who rely heavily on rain-fed farming systems (Sithole et al., 2025). Existing limitations in water availability and access continue to constrain crop productivity, and climate change projections indicate that these pressures are likely to intensify in the future (Touch et al., 2024). These challenges underscore the urgent need to develop and implement efficient water management strategies, particularly in water-scarce regions experiencing rapid population growth. As water resources and arable land continue to decline, evaluating irrigation strategies that can sustain agricultural productivity while improving water use efficiency under conditions of limited water availability has become increasingly important. Deficit irrigation scheduling has emerged as a promising approach for enhancing water use efficiency by optimizing the use of limited water supplies while maintaining acceptable crop yields. However, despite extensive research demonstrating its potential, the adoption and practical implementation of deficit irrigation by smallholder farmers remain limited, highlighting the need for further research to improve its feasibility, accessibility, and field-level application.

Soil physicochemical properties are fundamental indicators of soil quality and play a central role in ecosystem functioning and agricultural productivity. Inadequate management of these properties exacerbates soil degradation by creating unfavorable conditions in arable lands, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter and essential nutrients (Derpsch et al., 2024; Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022). Consequently, declining soil quality results in significant reductions in crop productivity (Alam, 2014). Healthy soils support plant, animal, and human life by linking agricultural productivity with effective soil management and sustainable food production systems (Lehmann et al., 2020). Soil physical properties form the basis for chemical and biological processes by regulating the movement of air, water, and dissolved nutrients within the soil profile, thereby influencing seed germination, root development, and overall plant growth (Singh et al., 2024). For instance, increased soil bulk density can reduce pore space and water infiltration due to compaction, ultimately limiting nutrient cycling and plant productivity (Sainju et al., 2022). Soil chemical properties, including the concentration and availability of cations and anions, are equally important for nutrient management and fertilisation planning. Among these, soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) are particularly critical, as they strongly influence nutrient availability and serve as key indicators of soil degradation (Shah et al., 2026).

Synthetic fertilisers have played a major role in increasing crop yields since the twentieth century and have contributed substantially to global food production (Tang et al., 2022). However, their excessive and prolonged use can lead to nutrient imbalances, soil acidification, reduced microbial diversity, and increased greenhouse gas emissions (Tripathi et al., 2020). These challenges are particularly severe for subsistence and smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, many of whom lack the financial capacity to purchase sufficient fertilisers to replenish nutrients removed through crop harvesting (Araya et al., 2024; Tully et al., 2015). Consequently, there is a growing need to adopt sustainable agricultural technologies, including intercropping and integrated soil physicochemical management, to maintain and enhance crop productivity in smallholder farming systems (Verma et al., 2019).

Cropping systems refer to the spatial and temporal arrangement of crops within a farming system and include practices such as monocropping, intercropping, crop rotation, and mixed cropping (Yang et al., 2020). These systems are essential for optimising resource use, improving soil physicochemical properties, and enhancing resilience to environmental stresses, particularly in semi-arid regions where agricultural production is constrained by limited water availability and high climatic variability (Fan et al., 2025). In such environments, well-designed cropping systems can improve water-use efficiency (WUE), reduce production risks, and stabilise crop yields (Yang H. et al., 2021).

Within legume-based intercropping systems, nutrient acquisition is enhanced through the ability of legumes to fix atmospheric nitrogen via biological nitrogen fixation. This process facilitates interspecific nitrogen transfer, improves nutrient availability, and increases overall nutrient-use efficiency within the system (Akchaya et al., 2025; Ananthi et al., 2017) Legumes therefore play a key role in sustainable agriculture by improving soil fertility and supporting long-term soil productivity (Kebede et al., 2012). Intercropping legumes with cereal crops, such as maize, have been widely recognized for strengthening food production systems in developing countries, particularly under water-limited conditions. In addition to increasing productivity, these systems enhance soil health and nutrient cycling through biological nitrogen fixation (Bechem et al., 2018).

South Africa has a rich diversity of indigenous plant species with significant nutritional, medicinal, and economic value, making their cultivation increasingly important for sustainable agricultural development (Masondo et al., 2025). Many indigenous and medicinal plants have been shown to produce acceptable yields and generate substantial economic returns under water-scarce conditions (Nwafor et al., 2021). Among these, African leafy vegetables have gained increasing attention due to their contributions to food and nutrition security, dietary diversity, and rural livelihoods (Mateu et al., 2019). Their importance continues to grow because of their nutritional benefits and strong adaptability to marginal environments, including water-deficit conditions. Many of these species can maintain productivity and economic value under limited water availability, making them suitable for climate-resilient agricultural systems (Mudau et al., 2022).

Among the most important indigenous leafy vegetables is Cleome gynandra, widely cultivated and consumed across Africa and parts of Asia (Kwarteng et al., 2018). It is an important source of vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients, particularly for resource-constrained communities (Mashamaite et al., 2022). Another notable species is Cucumis myriocarpus, native to several southern African countries, including South Africa, Zambia, Botswana, Mozambique, and Lesotho (Nkgapele et al., 2011). Species within the Cucumis genus are generally drought tolerant and capable of surviving under minimal water supply (Shaik et al., 2017). Their physiological and morphological adaptations enable them to withstand environmental stress, remain dormant during adverse conditions, and exhibit moderate resistance to diseases such as downy mildew, scab, and mosaic virus (Mashela and Pofu, 2012; Ramatsitsi and Dube, 2020). Furthermore, these crops perform well in arid environments and can thrive in soil with low water-holding capacity (Shaik et al., 2017).

Despite increasing research on intercropping systems, limited information is available on the integration of dry beans with African leafy vegetables, particularly under deficit irrigation conditions. The drought tolerance and nutritional value of African leafy vegetables, combined with the soil fertility benefits and nitrogen-fixing ability of legumes such as dry beans, suggest strong potential for developing resilient and sustainable cropping systems. Such systems could enhance resource-use efficiency, improve soil physicochemical properties, increase water-use efficiency, and strengthen food and nutritional security in resource-constrained environments. However, the combined effects of deficit irrigation and dry bean–African leafy vegetable intercropping on soil physicochemical properties, water-use efficiency, and crop productivity remain poorly understood. Addressing this gap could provide valuable insights into the development of climate-smart and sustainable production systems that support smallholder farmers in water-limited regions.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The study was conducted at the University of Limpopo Experimental Farm (UL Farm), South Africa (23° 50’ 36.86’’ S, 29° 40’ 54.99’’ E). The planting season was from November 2023 to March 2024 (season 1) and from November 2024 to March 2025 (season 2). The UL Farm is situated in a semi-arid region within the Polokwane Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The area experiences winter temperatures ranging from 16 °C to 18 °C (minimum) and 20 °C to 30 °C (maximum), while summer temperatures range from 18 °C to 22 °C (minimum) and 28 °C to 38 °C (maximum). Relative humidity ranges from 30–40% (minimum) to 85–95% (maximum) (Mokgolo et al., 2024).

The soils at the study site are classified as calcareous with an effective rooting depth of approximately 40 cm, according to the South African Soil Classification System (Mavimbela and van Rensburg, 2019). The field had previously been cultivated under a maize–legume intercropping system. The orthic topsoil is about 70.5 cm deep and is characterised by a dark reddish-brown color (5YR 3/4) when dry and a dark brown color (7.5YR 3/3) when wet. It has a clay content ranging from 15% to 35%, classifying it as sandy clay loam. The subsoil is classified as a red apedal B horizon with a depth of 33.5 cm. It appears brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) when dry and yellowish red (5YR 4/6) when wet, with a clay content of 0–5%.

2.2 Study design

Data were analyzed using a linear mixed-effects model in which irrigation level, cropping system, growth stage, and their interactions were treated as fixed effects, while block and subplot effects were treated as random effects to account for the split-plot experimental design. This approach appropriately accommodated the hierarchical structure of the experiment and enabled accurate estimation of treatment effects and standard errors. In the split-plot design, irrigation levels were assigned to main plots, while cropping systems were assigned to subplots. The model was specified as follows:

where:

, observed response variable,

, overall mean,

, fixed effect of irrigation level,

, fixed effect of cropping system,

, irrigation × cropping system interaction,

, random effect of block,

, residual error.

For soil physicochemical analysis, a 5 × 3 split-plot design arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications was used. The main-plot factor consisted of five cropping systems: (i) monocropped dry bean, (ii) monocropped Cucumis myriocarpus, (iii) monocropped Cleome gynandra, (iv) dry bean intercropped with C. myriocarpus, and (v) dry bean intercropped with C. gynandra. The subplot factor comprised three irrigation levels based on crop evapotranspiration (ETc): full irrigation (100% ETc), 75% deficit irrigation, and 50% deficit irrigation.

For dry bean performance, the experiment was analyzed as a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement in an RCBD with three replications. The first factor included three cropping systems: (i) monocropped dry bean, (ii) dry bean intercropped with C. myriocarpus, and (iii) dry bean intercropped with C. gynandra. The second factor consisted of the same three irrigation levels (100% ETc, 75% deficit irrigation, and 50% deficit irrigation).

For C. myriocarpus and C. gynandra, separate analyses were conducted using a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement in an RCBD with three replications. The first factor was cropping system, consisting of monocropping and intercropping with dry bean, while the second factor was irrigation level (100% ETc, 75% deficit irrigation, and 50% deficit irrigation). Each species was analyzed independently to account for differences in crop response.

2.3 Cultural practices

2.3.1 Soil preparation and characterization

The study area showed no topographical variation; therefore, simple random sampling was applied within a 56 × 54 m experimental field. Spacing between growth stage treatments was 11.5 m, irrigation treatments were separated by 4 m, and cropping treatments by 1.5 m (Supplementary Figure 1). Composite soil samples were randomly collected from each plot at a depth of 0–30 cm using an auger before planting to assess baseline soil fertility across four phenological stages. This sampling depth corresponds to the typical rooting zones of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), Cucumis myriocarpus, and Cleome gynandra. The experimental field was prepared through ploughing, harrowing, and levelling prior to crop establishment (Supplementary Figure 2).

2.3.2 Irrigation

Soil was irrigated to 100% field capacity, and soil moisture was monitored using the gravimetric method under different regulated deficit irrigation regimes across the four phenological stages. Both gravimetric and volumetric water contents were used to determine soil moisture levels.

Gravimetric method: W, (Uthaiwat et al., 2024).

Volumetric water content: (Zamora-Ledezma et al., 2025).

For, Bulk density: Pw, (Panagos et al., 2024).

Regulated deficit irrigation was implemented using reference crop evapotranspiration (ET₀) derived from high-resolution data obtained from the automated weather station (AWS) at the University of Limpopo (Figures 1, 2). These data form part of comprehensive South African climate datasets managed by the Agricultural Research Council. Irrigation scheduling was based on ET₀ and crop-specific coefficients (K_c) to estimate crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) and determine precise irrigation requirements.

Figure 1

Figure 2

The figures illustrate weekly meteorological conditions during the 2023/24 (Figure 1) and 2024/25 (Figure 2) growing seasons, including rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, and reference evapotranspiration (ET₀). Both seasons were characterised by low and erratic rainfall, with only occasional rainfall peaks, highlighting the dependence of crop production on supplemental irrigation. Air temperatures fluctuated throughout both seasons, with slightly greater variability observed during 2024/25, while minimum temperatures remained relatively stable. Relative humidity was generally high; however, minimum relative humidity values exhibited greater fluctuations, indicating intermittent dry periods. Reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) remained moderate across both seasons, suggesting relatively stable and manageable atmospheric water demand.

Daily ET₀ was calculated using the Penman–Monteith method (Maseko et al., 2020). Crop water requirements (ET_c) were subsequently estimated using the standard relationship ETc , ET₀ × K_c, where ETc is crop evapotranspiration, ET₀ is reference evapotranspiration, and Kc is the crop coefficient.

For the African leafy vegetables Cleome myriocarpa and Cleome gynandra, crop coefficient values developed for spinach and similar leafy vegetables were used to estimate ET_c, with K_c values of 0.40 (initial stage), 1.52 (mid-season), and 0.35 (late season). Crop coefficient values for C. myriocarpa and C. gynandra are not yet well established in the literature. Therefore, the use of spinach-based coefficients was considered appropriate due to the physiological and morphological similarities between these species, including comparable growth habits, leaf morphology, canopy development, rooting characteristics, and their cultivation for vegetative biomass production (Pereira et al., 2024; Piccinni et al., 2009; Buelvas et al., 2019). sing these crop coefficients in conjunction with ET₀ data obtained from the automatic weather station (AWS) (Figures 1, 2), crop water requirements were determined for each crop and growth stage.

Instantaneous Water Use Efficiency (iWUE) was measured during the four phenological stages as;

(Navegantes et al., 2024).

Where:

• iWUE, Instantaneous Water Use Efficiency (μmol CO₂ mmol^-¹ H₂O)

• A, Net photosynthetic rate (μmol CO₂ m^-² s^-¹)

• E, Transpiration rate (mmol H₂O m^-² s^-¹)

2.3.3 Fertilization

Fertilizer requirements were determined according to the recommendations of (Morris et al., 2007) and were further guided by soil analysis results (Table 1) and were further refined based on the soil analysis results (Table 1). The soil analysis indicated that phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) concentrations were within the optimal range; therefore, no additional P or K fertilizers were required to correct soil nutrient deficiencies.

Fertiliser applications were then tailored to the nutritional requirements of each crop. Cucumis myriocarpus received a basal application of 2:3:2 (30) fertiliser at 100 kg ha^-¹, followed by a top-dressing of urea (46% N) at 60 kg ha^-¹. Cleome gynandra received 2:3:2 (30) at 150 kg ha^-¹ as a basal application, followed by a side-dressing of urea at 90 kg ha^-¹. Phaseolus vulgaris L. (dry bean) received 2:3:2 (30) at 150 kg ha^-¹ as a basal application and urea at 50 kg ha^-¹ as a booster application. Potassium chloride (KCl; 50% K) was applied at 60 kg ha^-¹ to support pod development and yield formation, following the crop-specific fertiliser.

2.4 Data collection

2.4.1 Soil parameters

Composite soil samples were randomly collected from the 0–30 cm depth. The samples were air-dried, gently crushed, and passed through a 2 mm sieve prior to analysis. Selected physical and chemical soil properties were then determined pre-planting and towards the end of the growth of the crops. Soil texture was analyzed using the hydrometer method (Karkanis et al., 1991), while soil bulk density was calculated as the ratio of oven-dry soil mass to core volume (Panagos et al., 2024). Soil chemical properties, including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na), were also determined, as these parameters play a key role in the productivity of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and indigenous crops such as Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra. Soil pH and EC were measured in a 1:2.5 soil-to-water suspension following (Rhoades et al., 1989; Bai et al., 2013). Exchangeable cations (K, Ca, Mg, and Na) were extracted using the ammonium acetate method (M. Yang et al., 2024; Dohrmann, 2006), while available phosphorus was determined using the Bray-1 extraction method (Venu et al., 2023). Total effective cation exchange capacity (CEC) was calculated as the sum of K + Ca + Mg + Na (cmol/kg) (Dohrmann, 2006).

2.4.2 Plant growth and yield parameters

Dry bean: Growth and yield components, including plant height, root diameter, stem diameter, stem length, and pod length, were measured using a measuring tape. Biomass, root weight, and pod weight were determined using a precision weighing scale.

African leafy crops: Growth and yield of Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra were assessed by harvesting each plant as a bunch per plant. Leaves were cut above the growing point, following standard leaf harvest practices used for baby spinach and Swiss chard.

2.5 Data analysis

Data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using using Statistix 10 (Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL, USA, and means were separated using Tukey’s Honest significant difference. For all analyses, assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were evaluated using diagnostic residual plots. Where significant treatment effects were detected (P < 0.05), means were separated using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test at the 5% significance level. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to explore multivariate relationships among selected soil physicochemical properties and to assess treatment groupings under different irrigation levels and cropping systems. PCA was conducted using standardized variables, and the first two principal components were used to visualise associations among soil properties and treatment combinations.

3 Results

3.1 Soil water content across the four phenological growth stages

Figure 3 illustrates soil moisture dynamics under three irrigation regimes: 50% deficit irrigation (DI), 75% DI, and 100% full irrigation (FI), highlighting the effects of regulated deficit irrigation across four key phenological growth stages. Across all observation periods, soil water content was consistently highest under FI, intermediate under 75% DI, and lowest under 50% DI. Noticeable peaks around weeks 7 and 14 likely reflect recent irrigation or rainfall events, whereas subsequent declines corre-spond to progressive soil water depletion driven by crop uptake and drainage processes (Figure 3a).

Figure 3

Differences among treatments became more pronounced after flowering, particularly under 50% DI, indicating increasing water stress under reduced irrigation (Figure 3b). A general decline in soil moisture was observed across all treatments towards physiological maturity, mainly due to reduced irrigation input combined with sustained crop water demand (Figure 3d).

Overall, decreasing irrigation from 100% to 50% ETc consistently reduced soil water availability, with the strongest effects occurring after flowering and during the late growth stages. Although intermittent rainfall temporarily reduced differences among treatments, lower irrigation levels consistently resulted in reduced soil moisture throughout the crop cycle.

3.2 Instantaneous water use efficiency during four phenological growth stages

No significant interaction effects (p > 0.05) between cropping system and deficit irrigation were observed for instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE) across most growth stages in both seasons, except at the early pod stage in 2023/24, where sole dry bean under 75% DI showed a significant increase (Table 2).

Cropping system significantly influenced WUE at the 50% flowering, early pod, and mid pod stages in 2023/24, and at the 50% flowering and mid pod stages in 2024/25. At 50% flowering, sole dry bean (DB) consistently recorded the highest WUE in both seasons (0.0748 and 0.0448), significantly exceeding sole Cleome gynandra (CG) and most intercrop treatments (Table 2). A similar trend was observed at the early pod stage in 2023/24, where sole DB recorded the highest value (0.0703), while sole CG showed the lowest (0.0143).

At the mid pod stage, sole DB consistently outperformed all other treatments in both seasons, with values of 0.0408 and 0.0569 in 2023/24 and 2024/25, respectively. The lowest values were generally recorded under sole CG and the DB + CG intercrop (Table 2). However, at physiological maturity, differences among cropping systems were no longer significant in either season, indicating convergence of treatment effects as crops reached maturity.

Irrigation level also affected WUE at specific growth stages. During 50% flowering in 2023/24, 75% DI produced the highest WUE (0.0546), significantly higher than both FI and 50% DI. At the mid pod stage in the same season, FI recorded the highest value (0.0308), while 50% DI recorded the lowest (0.0197). At maturity in 2024/25, FI again resulted in significantly higher WUE (0.0127) compared with both deficit irrigation treatments (Table 2).

In contrast, irrigation effects were not significant at most growth stages in 2024/25, suggesting a weaker response of WUE to irrigation level under those seasonal conditions. Overall, sole dry bean consistently exhibited higher WUE than intercrop and sole Cleome gynandra treatments, particularly during vegetative and reproductive stages. While irrigation effects were variable across seasons, moderate deficit irrigation (75% DI) occasionally improved WUE compared with full irrigation.

3.3 Effect of cropping treatments and irrigation levels on selected soil physical and chemical properties

3.3.1 Main effects of cropping systems and irrigation levels on selected soil physicochemical properties

Cropping systems significantly influenced most soil chemical properties in both seasons, although phosphorus (P) concentrations did not differ significantly among treatments. During the 2024/25 season, sole dry bean (DB) and the dry bean + Cucumis myriocarpus (DB + CM) intercrop maintained relatively higher P concentrations, whereas the dry bean + Cleome gynandra (DB + CG) intercrop and sole C. gynandra recorded lower values (Table 3). The relatively stable P concentrations across cropping systems may be attributed to the low mobility of phosphorus in soil, where diffusion rather than mass flow is the dominant transport mechanism. Consequently, changes in crop composition may have had a limited effect on overall soil P availability over the relatively short duration of the experiment. Similar findings have been reported in legume-based intercropping systems, where changes in residual soil P are often less pronounced than changes in more mobile nutrients such as K and Na (Simon et al., 2024).

In contrast, potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) were significantly affected by cropping system in both seasons. The DB + CG intercrop consistently recorded the highest K concentrations, while sole C. gynandra produced the lowest values across both seasons (Table 3). The elevated K concentrations under DB + CG may indicate enhanced nutrient mobilization within the rhizosphere, resulting from complementary root interactions and greater biological activity associated with intercropping (Jiang et al., 2024). Legume roots can alter rhizosphere chemistry through proton release, root exudation, and stimulation of microbial activity, thereby increasing nutrient solubilisation and availability (Cesco et al., 2026). Furthermore, differences in rooting depth and nutrient acquisition strategies between dry bean and C. gynandra may have reduced direct competition for some nutrients while improving overall nutrient recovery from the soil profile. Similar improvements in nutrient availability under legume-based intercrops have been reported by several authors, who attributed these responses to niche complementarity and enhanced nutrient cycling (Silberg et al., 2019; Holz et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024).

Conversely, sole dry bean maintained the highest Ca concentrations and relatively high Mg levels, whereas DB + CM generally promoted greater Mg retention than the other cropping systems. These results suggest that nutrient uptake patterns differed among species and that interspecific competition may have altered nutrient extraction from the soil. The greater retention of Ca and Mg under sole dry bean may reflect lower overall nutrient demand compared with intercrop treatments, resulting in higher residual concentrations remaining in the soil.

Irrigation level significantly influenced K, Ca, Mg, and Na during the 2023/24 season, although these effects were less pronounced in 2024/25. Full irrigation (100% FI) generally resulted in the highest concentrations of K, Mg, and Na, whereas the lowest concentrations were recorded under 50% deficit irrigation (DI) (Table 4). The decline in exchangeable cations under severe water deficit is likely linked to reduced nutrient mobility and slower mineralisation processes under dry soil conditions (Mahmood et al., 2025). Adequate soil moisture promotes microbial activity and nutrient cycling while facilitating nutrient transport to roots through both diffusion and mass flow (Butcher et al., 2020). Under deficit irrigation, reduced soil water content restricts these processes, limiting nutrient availability and altering nutrient distribution within the root zone.

3.3.2 Interaction effects of cropping systems × irrigation levels on selected soil physicochemical properties

The interaction between cropping systems and irrigation levels significantly influenced bulk density and electrical conductivity (EC) in both seasons, indicating that the response to irrigation was strongly dependent on the cropping arrangement. The highest EC values were consistently observed under the dry bean + Cucumis myriocarpus intercrop (DB + CM) combined with deficit irrigation, particularly under DB + CM × 75% DI in 2023/24 and DB + CM × 50% DI in 2024/25. This suggests that the combined effect of intercropping and reduced irrigation enhanced the accumulation of soluble salts in the soil (Table 4).

These findings are consistent with (M. Kim et al., 2025), who reported that while elevated EC may constrain early plant growth, moderate increases at later stages can improve nutrient availability and uptake through enhanced osmotic adjustment. In contrast, the lowest EC values were generally recorded under fully irrigated sole dry bean treatments (Table 4). However, all EC values remained below 4 dS m^-¹, indicating non-saline conditions according to USDA standards (Heuscher et al., 2005). This confirms that although irrigation and cropping system influenced salt dynamics, salinity levels were not high enough to adversely affect crop productivity.

Bulk density also showed significant variation across treatment combinations. The lowest values were recorded under DB + Cleome gynandra × 100% FI, suggesting that intercropping combined with adequate soil moisture may enhance soil aggregation and reduce compaction (Table 4). In contrast, higher bulk density values observed during the early pod stage, particularly under 50% and 75% deficit irrigation, are likely associated with reduced soil moisture, which limits soil swelling and biological activity and increases compaction (Pan et al., 2025). At the maturity stage, lower bulk density under full irrigation (100% FI) further suggests that adequate moisture promotes improved soil structure through enhanced aggregation and reduced compaction. Overall, consistently higher bulk density under 50% DI indicates that water stress may restrict root development and microbial activity, thereby reducing soil porosity, aeration, and structural stability.

Significant interaction effects were also observed for soil pH (H₂O) and pH (KCl) during the 2023/24 season, although these effects were not significant in 2024/25 (Table 4). The highest pH values were recorded under DB + CG × 50% DI and DB + CM × 50% DI, indicating that intercropping under severe water deficit conditions promoted the accumulation of basic cations and increased soil alkalinity (Table 4). Conversely, sole dry bean treatments under full or moderate irrigation generally exhibited lower pH values.

The absence of significant interaction effects in the second season suggests that seasonal variability, environmental conditions, or soil buffering capacity may have moderated treatment responses over time. Overall, the results demonstrate that the influence of irrigation on soil physicochemical properties is strongly dependent on cropping system composition, with intercropping under deficit irrigation producing the most pronounced changes in soil chemical characteristics.

3.4 Effect of cropping treatments and irrigation levels on selected soil chemical properties

3.4.1 Main effects of cropping systems and irrigation levels on selected soil chemical properties

Cropping systems significantly influenced most soil cation properties in both seasons, although phosphorus (P) concentrations did not differ significantly among treatments. During the 2024/25 season, sole dry bean (DB) and the dry bean + Cucumis myriocarpus (DB + CM) intercrop maintained relatively higher P concentrations, whereas the dry bean + Cleome gynandra (DB + CG) intercrop and sole C. gynandra recorded lower values (Table 5). The absence of significant differences in P among cropping systems suggests that phosphorus availability was relatively stable across treatments, despite variations in crop composition and nutrient uptake patterns.

In contrast, potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) were significantly affected by cropping system in both seasons. The DB + CG intercrop consistently recorded the highest K concentrations, while sole C. gynandra produced the lowest K levels across both seasons (Table 5). Conversely, sole dry bean maintained the highest Ca concentrations and relatively high Mg levels, whereas DB + CM generally promoted greater Mg retention than the other cropping systems. These findings indicate that crop species composition influenced nutrient accumulation and cycling through differences in root architecture, nutrient uptake efficiency, residue quality, and rhizosphere interactions. The elevated K concentrations under DB + CG suggest enhanced nutrient mobilization and recycling within the intercrop system, while the greater Ca and Mg concentrations under sole dry bean indicate improved retention of these base cations in the soil.

Irrigation level also significantly influenced K, Ca, Mg, and Na during the 2023/24 season, although its effects were less pronounced in 2024/25. Full irrigation (100% FI) generally resulted in the highest concentrations of K, Mg, and Na, whereas the lowest concentrations were recorded under 50% deficit irrigation (DI) (Table 5). A similar trend was observed for Ca, with concentrations declining as irrigation water decreased and 50% DI producing significantly lower values than the fully irrigated treatment during the 2023/24 season.

The decline in exchangeable cation concentrations under severe water deficit may be attributed to reduced nutrient mineralization, restricted nutrient transport to plant roots through mass flow, and increased physiological stress associated with limited soil moisture. Reduced soil water availability can also limit nutrient diffusion and root activity, thereby decreasing nutrient uptake efficiency and altering nutrient distribution within the soil profile. However, the lack of significant irrigation effects on most cations during the 2024/25 season suggests that seasonal environmental conditions, residual nutrient accumulation, or soil buffering processes may have moderated treatment responses.

3.4.2 Interaction effects of cropping systems × irrigation levels on soil chemical properties

The interaction between cropping systems and irrigation levels had a highly significant influence on phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and total exchangeable cation exchange capacity (TEC–CEC) in most cases, indicating that soil nutrient dynamics were strongly governed by the combined effects of crop arrangement and water availability (Tables 4, 6).

Across both seasons, the highest concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg, and Na were consistently observed under sole dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) combined with full irrigation (100% FI), whereas the lowest values were generally recorded under sole Cleome gynandra subjected to 50% deficit irrigation (Table 4). For example, sole DB × 100% FI produced the highest K concentrations (165.17 and 202.67 mg kg^-¹) and Ca concentrations (117.00 and 133.92 mg kg^-¹) across the two seasons (Table 6). These results suggest that a legume-based system combined with adequate water supply enhances nutrient availability and retention, likely through improved root activity, nutrient cycling, and soil biological processes.

A general decline in nutrient concentrations with increasing irrigation deficit was observed across most cropping systems, particularly for K, Mg, and Na. Concentrations progressively decreased from full irrigation to 50% DI in both sole and intercropped treatments (Table 6). Although DB + CG maintained relatively higher K levels than most treatments, severe water deficit still resulted in substantial nutrient depletion. Similarly, sole CG consistently recorded the lowest concentrations of most cations across irrigation regimes, suggesting lower nutrient recycling efficiency and/or greater nutrient depletion (Table 6).

Higher P levels under moderate deficit irrigation (75% DI) compared with full irrigation indicate that water stress may reduce plant uptake, leading to nutrient accumulation in the soil. This contrasts with (Sanandaji et al., 2024), who reported increased P availability under water deficit in quinoa. The discrepancy may be attributed to reduced root growth and limited P mobility under dry conditions, since phosphorus transport is strongly dependent on soil moisture and diffusion processes.

Intercropping also influenced nutrient dynamics through increased interspecific competition. Lower P levels in intercropping systems likely resulted from overlapping root zones, which enhanced nutrient uptake and reduced residual soil (He et al., 2024) This agrees with (Xu et al., 2021), who reported higher soil P under monocropping compared with intercropping due to reduced competition.

Potassium dynamics were similarly affected by the interaction between cropping system and irrigation. Higher K levels under sole cropping and under 100% and 75% FI suggest that adequate soil moisture supports K availability and reduces plant stress, thereby maintaining higher residual soil K (Bader et al., 2021). Conversely, the lowest K concentrations under 50% DI, particularly in intercropping systems, reflect increased nutrient depletion driven by combined water stress and interspecific competition (W. Tan et al., 2020). The generally higher nutrient levels observed in 2024/25 compared with 2023/24 further indicate seasonal variability, likely driven by differences in rainfall distribution, soil moisture conditions, and nutrient uptake efficiency (Nong et al., 2025).

Calcium dynamics showed weaker interaction effects in 2024/25, indicating greater stability of Ca across treatments in that season. Declining Ca levels at maturity, particularly under intercropping and sole C. gynandra, suggest increased plant uptake during reproductive stages. Seasonal factors such as rainfall, irrigation scheduling, and soil acidity may also have contributed to Ca leaching and redistribution (Kgopa et al., 2018; Kataria et al., 2024). Higher Ca levels under 75% DI suggest reduced uptake under moderate stress, whereas lower values under 50% DI may reflect greater early-stage uptake driven by transpiration demand.

The decline in Ca in 2024/25, particularly under sole C. gynandra, may also reflect cumulative nutrient depletion due to continuous cropping and rainfall-driven leaching losses. Magnesium showed a contrasting pattern, with higher values under full irrigation, especially in sole cropping systems, indicating that adequate soil moisture enhances Mg availability and retention. This agrees with (Sanatu and Abubakari, 2022), who reported higher Mg concentrations under wetter conditions. In contrast, Mg declined under deficit irrigation and intercropping, likely due to reduced moisture and increased nutrient competition. Notably, Mg concentrations often exceeded Ca levels, particularly under 100% and 75% irrigation, possibly due to differences in leaching behavior and irrigation water composition (Qadir et al., 2018).

Interaction effects also significantly influenced TEC–CEC in both seasons. In 2023/24, sole dry bean under full irrigation recorded the highest TEC–CEC value (2.33 cmol kg^-¹), significantly exceeding most other treatments (Figure 4). This was followed by sole DB × 75% DI and DB + CM under 100% and 75% FI, indicating that dry bean-based systems generally maintained higher exchangeable cation levels. This improvement is likely attributable to enhanced nutrient cycling through legume root activity and residue decomposition, as well as improved nutrient retention under adequate soil moisture.

Figure 4

A similar trend was observed in 2024/25, where TEC–CEC generally declined with increasing water deficit across cropping systems (Figure 5). The reduction was most pronounced under sole DB and DB + CM, where values decreased markedly under 50% DI compared with full irrigation. For example, TEC–CEC declined from approximately 2.80 cmol kg^-¹ under sole DB × 100% FI to about 2.55 cmol kg^-¹ under sole DB × 50% DI (Figure 6). Likewise, DB + CM × 50% DI recorded significantly lower values (2.18 cmol kg^-¹) compared with higher irrigation treatments (Figure 5).

Figure 5

Figure 6

Overall, sole dry bean under full irrigation consistently maintained the highest TEC–CEC values, indicating improved retention of exchangeable nutrient cations, while Cleome-based systems under deficit irrigation recorded the lowest values, reflecting reduced soil fertility status. These results demonstrate that severe water stress reduces soil cation retention capacity, whereas dry bean-based systems help sustain higher levels of exchangeable nutrients under variable irrigation conditions.

3.4.3 Principal component analysis on soil physicochemical chemical properties under deficit irrigation and intercropping

Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to evaluate the relationships among selected soil physicochemical properties under three irrigation levels [100%, 75%, and 50% irrigation deficit (DI)]. The first principal component (F1) accounted for 48.08% of the total variance, while the second principal component (F2) explained 15.60%, resulting in a cumulative variance of 63.68% explained by the first two components (Figure 7). Treatments located close to one another on the biplot exhibited similar soil characteristics, whereas treatments positioned further apart displayed distinct soil property profiles. Irrigation treatments located farther from the origin and in the direction of specific soil variables indicated a strong association with those properties. Calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and soil pH were represented by long vectors oriented in a similar direction within the third quadrant, indicating a strong positive correlation among these variables. Conversely, phosphorus (P), bulk density (BD), electrical conductivity (EC), and sodium (Na) were clustered closer to the origin in the fourth quadrant, suggesting weaker correlations and lower contributions to the overall variation explained by the first two principal components. The proximity of these variables to the origin further indicates that their distribution may be influenced by additional factors not fully captured by F1 and F2.

Figure 7

Principal component analysis was also conducted to assess the relationships among selected soil properties under five cropping systems: sole-planted dry beans, dry beans × Cleome myriocarpus, sole-planted C. myriocarpus, dry beans × Cleome gynandra, and sole-planted C. gynandra (Figure 8). The PCA revealed a strong positive association among Ca, Mg, and K, as evidenced by their closely aligned vectors and positive loadings along the F2 axis. These variables contributed substantially to the separation of treatments along the vertical dimension of the biplot. In contrast, Na, EC, and pH were more strongly associated with the F1 axis and were positioned opposite to Ca, Mg, and K, indicating contrasting patterns of variation among the soil chemical properties. The separation of variables across the principal component axes suggests that the cropping systems differentially influenced nutrient availability and soil chemical characteristics. Cropping systems positioned in the direction of Ca, Mg, and K were associated with improved soil fertility attributes, whereas those aligned with Na and EC reflected relatively greater salinity-related characteristics.

Figure 8

3.5 Effect of growth stages, cropping treatments and effect irrigation levels on dry bean pod yield

3.5.1 Main effects of cropping systems and irrigation levels on dry bean pod yield

Cropping treatments had limited effects on most dry bean pod yield components during both seasons. The number of pods per plant, pod length, and pod weight were generally not significantly affected by cropping system, indicating that intercropping dry beans with Cucumis myriocarpus (CM) or Cleome gynandra (CG) did not substantially reduce pod production compared with sole dry bean cultivation (Table 6). However, significant differences were observed for pod length in 2024/25 and number of seeds per pod in 2023/24. Sole dry beans consistently produced the longest pods and the highest number of seeds per pod, while the dry bean–CG intercrop recorded lower values (Table 6). In particular, the number of seeds per pod declined from 6.36 in sole dry beans to 5.86 in the dry bean–CG intercrop during 2023/24 (Table 7). These results suggest that although intercropping had minimal effects on pod formation, competition for light, water, and nutrients in the dry bean–CG system may have slightly reduced reproductive development and seed set.

Irrigation level significantly influenced most pod yield components in both seasons. Full irrigation (100% FI) produced the highest number of pods per plant, longest pods, and greatest number of seeds per pod, whereas severe water deficit (50% DI) resulted in the lowest values. For example, pod number declined from 13.69 to 9.64 pods plant^-¹ in 2023/24 and from 11.57 to 8.49 pods plant^-¹ in 2024/25 as irrigation decreased from 100% FI to 50% DI (Table 7). Similarly, pod length and seed number per pod decreased significantly under severe deficit irrigation. These reductions can be attributed to limited soil moisture reducing photosynthesis, flower retention, pod development, and assimilate translocation to reproductive organs. Pod weight, however, was not significantly affected by irrigation in either season, indicating that dry beans maintained individual pod mass despite reductions in pod number and seed production under water stress. Overall, adequate irrigation was essential for maximizing pod yield components, while severe water deficits negatively affected reproductive performance.

3.5.1 Interaction effects of cropping systems × irrigation levels on dry bean pod yield

The interaction between cropping systems and irrigation levels significantly affected pod length (2024/25), number of seeds per pod (2023/24), and pod weight (2023/24), while no significant interaction was observed for pod number per plant. Across both seasons, sole dry beans under full irrigation generally produced the highest values for most yield components. In 2024/25, sole dry bean × 100% FI recorded the longest pods (12.24 cm), whereas the shortest pods were observed under dry bean + CG × 50% DI (7.21 cm) (Table 8). Similarly, during 2023/24, sole dry bean × 100% FI produced the highest number of seeds per pod (7.0), while dry bean+CG × 50% DI recorded the lowest value (4.42) (Table 8). These findings indicate that the negative effects of water stress on reproductive development were amplified when dry beans were grown in association with C. gynandra.

The interaction results further demonstrate that deficit irrigation reduced yield components within each cropping system, although the magnitude of reduction varied among intercrops. The dry bean–CM intercrop-maintained pod yield characteristics relatively close to those of sole dry beans across irrigation levels, suggesting lower interspecific competition and greater compatibility between the two species (Table 7). In contrast, the dry bean + CG intercrop consistently produced lower pod numbers, shorter pods, fewer seeds per pod, and lower pod weights, particularly under 50% DI (Table 8). The significant reductions observed under dry bean + CG × 50% DI indicate that combining severe water deficit with interspecific competition imposed greater stress on dry bean reproductive growth. Overall, the interaction results suggest that while dry beans can be successfully intercropped without substantial yield penalties, maintaining adequate irrigation is critical, and the dry bean–CM intercrop appears more resilient to water stress than the dry bean + CG system.

3.6 Effect of growth stages, cropping treatments and effect irrigation levels on C. myriocarpus and C. gynandra growth and yield

3.6.1 Main effects of cropping treatments and irrigation levels on Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra growth and yield

Cropping treatments significantly influenced the growth and biomass production of both Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra, although the magnitude and direction of the responses varied between the crops. For C. myriocarpus, sole cropping consistently resulted in greater root weight, shoot weight, and biomass accumulation than intercropping with dry beans, indicating that interspecific competition reduced overall growth performance (Table 9). Similarly, sole C. gynandra produced greater biomass than the intercrop treatment, despite intercropped plants exhibiting higher root and shoot weights in some instances (Table 10). These findings suggest that when grown alone, both indigenous vegetables had unrestricted access to water, nutrients, and light, enabling greater biomass accumulation. In contrast, intercropping with dry beans introduced competition for resources, resulting in reduced dry matter production. However, stem length and plant height were generally unaffected by cropping treatments in both species, indicating that plant architecture was less sensitive to intercropping than biomass-related traits (Tables 9, 11).

Irrigation level significantly affected most growth and yield parameters of both crops. Full irrigation (100% FI) consistently produced the highest root weight, shoot weight, biomass accumulation, and stem length, whereas 50% deficit irrigation (DI) resulted in the lowest values (Tables 9, 11). In both species, reductions in biomass under severe water deficit reflected the negative effects of moisture stress on photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, cell expansion, and assimilate production. Although growth parameters declined with decreasing irrigation levels, plant height remained relatively stable across irrigation treatments, suggesting that both species maintained vertical growth despite reduced biomass accumulation. Overall, the results demonstrate that adequate soil moisture is essential for maximizing growth and biomass production in both C. myriocarpus and C. gynandra, while severe water deficits significantly constrain vegetative development and productivity.

3.6.2 Interaction effects of cropping systems × irrigation levels on Cucumis myriocarpus and Cleome gynandra growth and yield

The interaction between cropping systems and irrigation levels significantly influenced most growth and biomass parameters of both species, demonstrating that crop performance depended on the combined effects of water availability and cropping arrangement. Across both seasons, the highest values for root weight, shoot weight, biomass accumulation, and stem length were generally recorded under sole cropping combined with full irrigation, while the lowest values occurred under intercropping subjected to severe water deficit (50% DI). For both C. myriocarpus and C. gynandra, biomass production declined progressively as irrigation levels decreased, with the greatest reductions occurring when plants were grown together with dry beans under water-limited conditions (Tables 10, 12). These findings indicate that the benefits of adequate irrigation were maximized under sole cropping systems where competition for resources was minimal.

The interaction effects further revealed that water stress intensified the competitive effects associated with intercropping. Although reductions in growth occurred under deficit irrigation in all treatments, the decline was generally greater in intercropped plants than in sole crops, indicating that limited water availability increased competition for soil moisture and nutrients. Stem length also decreased significantly under combined intercropping and deficit irrigation, reflecting restricted vegetative growth under resource-limited conditions. However, plant height remained relatively stable across treatment combinations for both species, suggesting that height growth was less sensitive to competition and moisture stress than biomass-related traits (Tables 10, 12). Overall, the results demonstrate that sole cropping under full irrigation provided the most favorable conditions for growth and biomass production of both C. myriocarpus (Table 9) and C. gynandra (Table 12), whereas the combination of intercropping and severe water deficit imposed the greatest constraints on plant development.

4 Discussion

4.1 Water use efficiency and soil moisture

The observed variation in instantaneous water-use efficiency (iWUE) across growth stages highlights the strong dependence of plant water-use regulation on phenological development, crop type, and seasonal environmental conditions. The absence of significant interaction effects between cropping system and irrigation in most growth stages suggests that iWUE was primarily governed by direct physiological responses to water availability and inherent crop-specific traits, rather than strong synergistic effects between cropping arrangement and irrigation regime.

The influence of irrigation on iWUE varied markedly across developmental stages, with the mid-pod stage emerging as the most sensitive period. This stage corresponds to peak reproductive development, when sink demand is high and assimilate partitioning to developing pods is maximised (Pabuayon et al., 2025). Under adequate water supply, sustained stomatal conductance and efficient mesophyll CO₂ diffusion enhance photosynthetic carbon gain relative to transpiration, thereby improving iWUE (Flexas et al., 2016). In contrast, the seed-filling or maturity stage showed a weaker response to irrigation, particularly in the 2023/24 season, because most structural and physiological components are already fully developed, limiting the capacity of additional water to further enhance photosynthetic activity. Similar stage-dependent responses have been widely reported, with reproductive stages consistently identified as the most water-sensitive phases in legumes due to tight coupling between carbon assimilation and transpiration processes (Aguilos et al., 2018; Pabuayon et al., 2025).

Seasonal variation further modified the irrigation response, with the 2023/24 season showing comparatively higher iWUE during seed filling, while the 2024/25 season exhibited stronger responses during the mid-pod stage. These differences are likely driven by interannual variation in environmental drivers such as temperature, solar radiation, vapour pressure deficit, and rainfall distribution, all of which regulate stomatal behavior and plant water status (Xiong and Nadal, 2020). Under higher evaporative demand, stomatal regulation becomes more sensitive to soil moisture availability, thereby amplifying treatment differences, whereas under milder atmospheric demand these differences are often buffered (Buckley et al., 2025).

Across studies, it is widely reported that iWUE typically increases under moderate water deficit due to partial stomatal closure, which reduces transpiration more strongly than photosynthetic carbon assimilation (Yang Y. J. et al., 2021; Buckley et al., 2025). However, under severe water stress, reductions in stomatal conductance, mesophyll CO₂ diffusion, and photosynthetic enzyme activity collectively limit carbon assimilation, resulting in reduced iWUE (Beauclaire et al., 2024). This non-linear response has been consistently observed in both legumes and cereal systems, confirming that optimal water-use efficiency occurs under moderate, non-lethal stress conditions rather than under either full irrigation or severe deficit (Sadeque et al., 2026; Franco-Navarro et al., 2025). Adequate irrigation during reproductive stages is therefore essential to maintain stomatal function and mesophyll CO₂ diffusion, ensuring efficient carbon gain per unit water transpired (Nguyen et al., 2023).

Cropping system effects on iWUE reported in the literature are generally more variable and strongly dependent on species compatibility and resource partitioning. Some intercropping systems improve water-use efficiency through complementary rooting depth, enhanced soil moisture extraction, and improved canopy light distribution, whereas others reduce efficiency due to intensified competition for water, nutrients, and light (Liu et al., 2025; Wen et al., 2022). In legume-based systems, dry beans often exhibit higher iWUE than leafy vegetables due to more conservative water-use strategies and stronger stomatal regulation under stress conditions (Wen et al., 2022). However, when interspecific competition is strong, especially under water deficit, stomatal closure may occur earlier, reducing carbon assimilation and limiting iWUE gains (Gao et al., 2022).

The convergence of iWUE values among dry bean treatments at physiological maturity reflects the natural decline in physiological activity as crops approach senescence (Androcioli et al., 2020; de Oliveira Neto et al., 2023). Reduced leaf area, declining chlorophyll content, and lower stomatal conductance collectively reduce carbon assimilation and transpiration, diminishing physiological differences among treatments (Wang et al., 2026). Therefore, results aligned with broader physiological evidence that iWUE is primarily regulated by phenological stage and atmospheric demand, with irrigation acting as a modulating factor and cropping system effects being secondary and highly context dependent. The mid-pod stage represents a critical window for optimizing water-use efficiency, where adequate but not excessive irrigation is essential to sustain the balance between carbon assimilation and water loss.

4.2 Soil physicochemical properties

The present study demonstrated that both cropping system and irrigation level significantly influenced soil physicochemical properties, nutrient availability, and cation dynamics. The significant interaction effects observed between these factors indicate that soil responses were regulated not only by water availability but also by plant-mediated processes occurring within the rhizosphere (B. Tan et al., 2021). In particular, dry bean-based intercropping systems improved several soil chemical properties relative to sole cropping systems. These improvements may be attributed to greater belowground functional diversity, which enhances nutrient cycling through complementary resource acquisition, increased rhizodeposition, and stimulation of microbial activity (Semchenko et al., 2021). Diverse rooting systems create heterogeneous rhizosphere environments that support a wider range of microbial communities and nutrient transformation pathways, thereby improving nutrient availability and soil fertility (Guerchi et al., 2025).

Bulk density is a key indicator of soil physical quality as it influences root penetration, water infiltration, aeration, and microbial activity (Al-Shammary et al., 2018). The lower bulk density observed under intercropping, particularly under 75% deficit irrigation, suggests that moderate water stress combined with diverse rooting systems improved soil structural stability. Intercropped species often develop complementary root architectures that create biopores and improve pore continuity throughout the soil profile (Eng Giap and Ahmad, 2025). In addition, greater belowground biomass and root turnover contribute organic inputs that stimulate microbial activity and the production of extracellular polysaccharides, which act as binding agents that stabilize soil aggregates and improve soil structure (Xu et al., 2021). This biological reinforcement of soil aggregates improves moisture retention and buffering capacity under fluctuating irrigation regimes, helping to reduce the severity of water stress during dry periods. Similar processes have been reported in cereal–legume intercropping systems, where enhanced root–soil–microbe interactions improved soil aggregation, reduced bulk density, and supported more stable yield performance under water-limited conditions (Akinola et al., 2023). This contrasts with systems dominated by single crops, where lower diversity of residue inputs can limit aggregate stability and slow structural recovery. Importantly, these soil physical improvements help explain why intercropping systems, particularly dry bean + Cucumis myriocarpus, maintained relatively comparable yield and iWUE performance under moderate deficit irrigation, despite increased interspecific competition. In semi-arid environments, where water availability is the primary limiting factor, improved soil structure enhances infiltration, water storage, and root access to deeper moisture reserves, thereby buffering plants against drought stress and stabilising physiological processes (Peralta Ogorek et al., 2025). In contrast, soils with higher bulk density restrict root expansion and reduce hydraulic conductivity, thereby intensifying drought stress and limiting stomatal regulation and carbon assimilation (Di Bert et al., 2025).

The higher soil pH observed under intercropping systems suggests that species interactions modified rhizosphere biogeochemical processes regulating soil acid–base balance. Legumes such as dry bean influence soil pH through multiple mechanisms, including biological nitrogen fixation, selective nutrient uptake, and associated proton exchange reactions in the rhizosphere (Maltais-Landry, 2015). During nitrogen fixation and nitrate uptake, legumes may release or consume H⁺ ions depending on the dominant nitrogen form and uptake pathway, thereby directly influencing soil acidity (Duchene et al., 2017). In addition, the decomposition of diverse crop residues in intercropping systems enhances the release of basic cations such as Ca, Mg, and K, which contribute to buffering soil acidity and stabilising pH levels (Țopa et al., 2025). Greater crop diversity also tends to stimulate microbial activity, accelerating organic matter turnover and nutrient mineralisation, which further influences soil acid–base dynamics through the production and consumption of organic acids and base-forming ions (Usman et al., 2020). However, it is important to note that reported pH responses in intercropping systems are not always consistent across studies. For example (Shen et al., 2024), reported higher soil pH in monocropped legumes compared with intercrops, indicating that the direction and magnitude of pH change are highly context dependent. Such contrasting findings are typically attributed to differences in soil buffering capacity, crop species composition, residue chemistry (e.g., C:N ratio and lignin content), fertiliser inputs, and prevailing environmental conditions, all of which regulate proton dynamics and cation exchange processes in soil systems (Ehrmann and Ritz, 2013; T. Yang et al., 2020). In the present study, the observed increase in pH under dry bean–African leafy vegetable intercrops suggests that complementary nutrient cycling and enhanced residue turnover promoted a more buffered and chemically stable rhizosphere environment, particularly under conditions of variable irrigation (Chamkhi et al., 2022).

Electrical conductivity (EC) responded strongly to both irrigation level and cropping system, with generally higher values observed under deficit irrigation and intercropping treatments. This pattern is consistent with studies reporting that reduced irrigation enhances salt accumulation in the upper soil profile due to limited leaching and increased evapotranspiration under high evaporative demand (Lu et al., 2025). Similar findings have been reported by (Alam, 2014; Marif and Esmail, 2025), who attributed increased EC under deficit irrigation to restricted percolation and greater retention of soluble salts within the root zone. Likewise, (H. N. Kim and Park, 2024) highlighted that under full irrigation, continuous downward water flux promotes salt displacement beyond the rooting depth, thereby reducing EC in the topsoil. These consistent findings across studies reinforce the hydrological control of EC dynamics in irrigated agroecosystems (M. Wang et al., 2024).

However, the magnitude and ecological implications of EC increases vary considerably among studies. In some long-term deficit irrigation experiments, EC has been reported to reach levels associated with salinity stress and yield suppression, particularly under arid conditions with poor drainage (Toumi et al., 2024; Soni et al., 2021). In contrast, the present study showed that although EC increased under deficit irrigation, values remained below salinity thresholds associated with crop growth inhibition. This agrees with findings from semi-arid intercropping systems where short- to medium-term water deficits led to nutrient concentration effects without triggering true salinisation, suggesting that EC elevation in such contexts may primarily reflect transient solute concentration rather than harmful salt accumulation (Omuto et al., 2024; Yan-Jun et al., 2025).

Cropping system effects observed in this study also align with and partly extend previous research. Similarly intercropping was associated with higher EC, likely due to enhanced root density, increased rhizodeposition, and accelerated residue decomposition, all of which contribute to greater release of soluble ions into the soil solution. In agreement, other studies on legume-based intercropping systems have shown that increased biological activity and nutrient cycling can elevate EC through intensified mineralisation processes (Kumawat et al., 2022). However, contrasting evidence also exists, where intercropping reduced EC due to improved nutrient uptake efficiency and reduced residual ion accumulation in soils with highly competitive root systems (Guerchi et al., 2025). These differences highlight that the direction of EC response depends strongly on species combination, rooting depth complementarity, and water availability (Song et al., 2025).

Moderate increases in electrical conductivity (EC) can enhance nutrient availability by increasing the concentration of soluble ions in the soil solution, thereby improving nutrient accessibility to plants. However, when EC exceeds critical salinity thresholds, excessive salt accumulation raises the osmotic potential of the soil solution, making water uptake by roots more energetically demanding and potentially reducing plant growth and productivity (Goet et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2021). In the present study, deficit irrigation promoted EC through reduced leaching and the concentration of dissolved ions within the root zone, a response commonly observed in semi-arid irrigated systems.

Water stress may also suppress root elongation, root hair development, and phosphatase activity, further restricting phosphorus acquisition. Consequently, phosphorus uptake declines and greater quantities remain in the soil (Huang et al., 2026). Similar findings were reported by (Sanandaji et al., 2024), who observed increased residual soil phosphorus under moderate water deficit in quinoa due to reduced plant uptake. Likewise (Suriyagoda et al., 2014), demonstrated that drought conditions significantly limit phosphorus mobility and uptake because diffusion processes are highly dependent on soil moisture. In contrast, other studies have reported lower available phosphorus under water deficit conditions due to reduced microbial activity, slower mineralisation rates, and decreased phosphorus solubilisation in dry soils (Zhang et al., 2020; Alori et al., 2017). For example (Zhang et al., 2020), found that prolonged drought reduced available phosphorus in maize systems by suppressing microbial-mediated nutrient cycling. These contrasting findings suggest that the response of soil phosphorus to deficit irrigation depends on the balance between reduced plant uptake and reduced phosphorus release from soil organic and mineral pools.

The lower residual phosphorus concentrations observed under intercropping systems suggest more efficient phosphorus acquisition and utilisation. This finding agrees with (He et al., 2024), who reported enhanced phosphorus uptake in cereal–legume intercrops due to complementary rooting patterns and rhizosphere facilitation. Similarly (Xu et al., 2021), found lower residual phosphorus concentrations in intercropped systems because diverse root systems exploited a greater soil volume and improved nutrient acquisition. Intercropped species often differ in rooting depth, root architecture, and rhizosphere chemistry, enabling them to access phosphorus from different soil microsites (Wang et al., 2023b). Furthermore, root exudates such as organic acids can mobilise sparingly soluble phosphorus fractions, while microbial associations enhance phosphorus solubilisation and uptake (Ma et al., 2025; Mjokwe et al., 2025). However, not all studies report positive effects of intercropping on phosphorus acquisition. Some researchers have found that interspecific competition may exceed facilitative effects, particularly under severe water stress or nutrient-poor conditions, leading to lower phosphorus uptake efficiency than expected (Zhu et al., 2022; Ellawala Kankanamge and Kodithuwakku, 2017). These contrasting responses indicate that the balance between facilitation and competition is highly dependent on species compatibility, soil fertility, and water availability.

The observed differences in exchangeable cation concentrations further highlight the importance of plant–soil–water interactions. Dry bean-based systems generally maintained higher concentrations of K, Ca, and Mg than Cleome-based systems, indicating differences in nutrient uptake patterns and nutrient cycling efficiency. Similar findings were reported by (M. Oliveira et al., 2020), who found that legume-based systems improved nutrient retention through biological nitrogen fixation and enhanced microbial activity. Likewise (Ladha et al., 2022), showed that legume residues decompose more rapidly than non-leguminous residues because of their lower C:N ratio, accelerating nutrient mineralisation and replenishment of exchangeable nutrient pools. This suggests that the net effect of legumes on soil nutrient status depends on the balance between nutrient inputs from residue decomposition and nutrient removal through plant uptake.

The decline in exchangeable cation concentrations under deficit irrigation can be explained by reduced nutrient mobility in dry soils. Potassium moves primarily through diffusion and mass flow, while calcium and magnesium are transported mainly through mass flow associated with water movement toward roots (R. H. Oliveira et al., 2004). As soil moisture declines, nutrient diffusion coefficients decrease and nutrient replenishment within the rhizosphere becomes increasingly restricted (Sardans and Peñuelas 2021). Similar reductions in K, Ca, and Mg availability under drought stress have been reported by (Bader et al., 2021), who observed that reduced soil moisture limited nutrient transport and root interception in several field crops. Likewise (Rezaei et al., 2025), reported that water deficits reduced potassium mobility and uptake because of restricted diffusion pathways. However, some studies have reported increased concentrations of exchangeable cations under deficit irrigation due to concentration effects arising from reduced leaching losses and lower nutrient uptake (Wang et al., 2023a). For example (Qadir et al., 2018), found that moderate water deficits increased soil concentrations of certain cations because less water moved nutrients beyond the root zone. The higher cation concentrations observed under full irrigation in the present study suggest that the beneficial effects of improved nutrient mobility and root uptake exceeded any concentration effects associated with reduced leaching.

The interaction between cropping system and irrigation further suggests that facilitation and competition operated simultaneously within the intercrop systems. Under moderate water deficits, complementary rooting patterns may have improved resource capture and nutrient-use efficiency by reducing direct competition for soil resources. This is consistent with the findings of (Engbersen et al., 2021), who demonstrated that niche differentiation in intercrops can enhance resource acquisition through spatial and temporal complementarity (Engbersen et al., 2021). Similarly (Semchenko et al., 2021), reported that species diversity often improves nutrient capture through facilitative rhizosphere interactions and greater belowground functional diversity (Saleem et al., 2020). However, as water availability declined further, competition for limited soil moisture and nutrients likely intensified, reducing the benefits of facilitation. The reduced nutrient concentrations and yield performance recorded in the dry bean + Cleome gynandra intercrop under severe deficit irrigation likely reflect a shift from facilitative to competitive interactions, whereby increasing resource limitation intensified competition for water and nutrients, thereby constraining crop productivity (Craine and Dybzinski, 2013).

Potassium concentrations declined under increasing water deficit, reflecting the strong dependence of K mobility on soil moisture. Potassium reaches roots through both diffusion and mass flow, processes that are substantially restricted under dry soil conditions (Rezaei et al., 2025). Reduced water content decreases ion mobility and limits replenishment of potassium in the rhizosphere, thereby reducing nutrient availability (Sardans and Peñuelas, 2021). Similar declines in soil and plant K concentrations under drought conditions have been reported by (Bader et al., 2021). The higher K concentrations observed in the dry bean–Cleome intercrop may indicate enhanced nutrient mobilisation through complementary rooting patterns and increased rhizosphere activity, although interspecific competition for nutrients may become more pronounced under severe water deficits.

Calcium and magnesium exhibited similar responses, with concentrations generally declining under greater water limitation. Because both nutrients are transported primarily through mass flow, reduced soil moisture limits their movement towards roots and restricts nutrient uptake. Seasonal declines in Ca, particularly under intercropping and sole Cleome treatments, likely reflect increased nutrient removal by crops as well as possible leaching and redistribution processes associated with seasonal rainfall patterns (Fadl et al., 2024). The lower concentrations observed under severe deficit irrigation may also indicate greater competition for available nutrient pools among neighboring plants. Similar moisture-dependent reductions in Ca and Mg availability have been reported in drought-prone agroecosystems (Luo et al., 2023).

Sodium dynamics differed somewhat from those of other cations. Higher Na concentrations under full irrigation suggest that irrigation water may have contributed additional soluble salts to the soil profile over time. This finding contrasts with (Huang et al., 2026), who reported greater Na accumulation under deficit irrigation due to reduced leaching. The discrepancy may reflect differences in irrigation water quality, soil texture, drainage conditions, and climatic factors among studies (El Sabagh et al., 2021). Such contrasting findings highlight the importance of site-specific factors in determining salinity responses to irrigation management. Nevertheless, Na concentrations remained below levels associated with sodicity-related soil degradation, indicating that sodium accumulation was not sufficient to adversely affect soil quality during the study period.

The PCA results further confirmed that irrigation level and cropping system jointly influenced soil chemical dynamics. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and pH were the principal variables driving treatment separation under different irrigation regimes, whereas the major distinction among cropping systems reflected contrasts between nutrient-related variables (Ca, Mg, and K) and salinity-related indicators (Na and EC). These patterns suggest that irrigation primarily regulated nutrient mobility and salt accumulation processes, while cropping systems influenced nutrient cycling and rhizosphere-mediated nutrient transformations.

Overall, the results demonstrate that soil nutrient dynamics were regulated by complex interactions among water availability, plant species composition, and rhizosphere processes. Deficit irrigation altered nutrient mobility and promoted the concentration of soluble salts through reduced leaching and evapoconcentration, whereas intercropping modified nutrient cycling through complementary rooting strategies, enhanced microbial activity, and improved resource capture. The superior performance of dry bean-based systems highlights the important role of legumes in maintaining soil fertility and nutrient availability under semi-arid conditions. These findings are consistent with previous studies on legume-based intercropping systems but also demonstrate that the magnitude and direction of soil responses depend strongly on irrigation management and local environmental conditions.

4.3 Crop growth and yield

The present study demonstrated that both cropping system and irrigation level significantly influenced the growth, biomass production, and yield performance of dry bean, Cucumis myriocarpus, and Cleome gynandra. The magnitude of these effects was largely dependent on their interaction, indicating that crop responses to water availability were strongly mediated by cropping arrangement. Intercropping dry bean with C. myriocarpus and C. gynandra generally reduced pod yield and associated yield components relative to sole dry bean. These reductions were most pronounced under severe deficit irrigation, suggesting that competition for soil moisture, nutrients, and light intensified as resource availability declined (Craine and Dybzinski, 2013; Fadl et al., 2024). The dry bean + C. gynandra intercrop was particularly sensitive to water stress, exhibiting lower pod length, seed number, pod weight, and overall productivity than the dry bean + C. myriocarpus system. This suggests that under severe water limitation, competitive interactions outweighed any potential facilitative benefits of intercropping. The greater reduction in productivity observed in the dry bean + C. gynandra intercrop may be associated with overlap in rooting zones and simultaneous demand for soil water and nutrients, which likely intensified resource competition during reproductive development. In contrast, the relatively better performance of the dry bean + C. myriocarpus intercrop suggests a greater degree of niche complementarity, whereby differences in root distribution, growth habit, or resource acquisition strategies reduced direct competition and improved overall resource-use efficiency. Similar findings were reported by (Gowda et al., 2020), who observed greater shoot growth, root development, and seed production in sole-planted chickpea compared with intercropped systems. However, other studies have reported yield advantages in legume-based intercrops when species exhibit strong spatial and temporal complementarity in resource use (Luo et al., 2023; Du et al., 2025).

Irrigation level was a dominant factor influencing crop performance across all treatments. Full irrigation and moderate deficit irrigation generally supported higher biomass production, improved reproductive development, and greater yield components, whereas severe deficit irrigation substantially reduced growth and productivity. These responses are associated with well-documented physiological constraints imposed by water stress, including reduced stomatal conductance, lower photosynthetic rates, impaired nutrient uptake, restricted cell expansion, and reduced assimilate translocation to developing reproductive organs (Qiao et al., 2024). Water deficit also limits nutrient mobility within the soil by reducing mass flow and diffusion processes, thereby constraining nutrient acquisition and further suppressing growth. As soil moisture declines, plants increasingly allocate resources towards survival rather than biomass production, resulting in reduced leaf area, lower canopy development, and diminished reproductive output. Although some increases in plant height were observed under moderate water deficit, this response likely reflects an adaptive elongation strategy aimed at maintaining light interception and reducing heat stress rather than enhanced productivity, as biomass accumulation and yield were generally reduced under these conditions. Similar trends were reported by (Hussen, 2019), who observed approximately 40% reductions in plant height under 50% deficit irrigation compared with full irrigation. Likewise (Ashine et al., 2024), reported significantly lower dry bean growth under 50% ETc than under full irrigation. In contrast, some studies have shown that moderate deficit irrigation can improve water-use efficiency without substantial yield penalties, particularly when water stress is imposed outside critical reproductive stages. The differences among studies likely reflect variation in crop species, timing and severity of water stress, soil characteristics, and climatic conditions.

The indigenous leafy vegetables responded similarly to irrigation and cropping treatments. Sole-cropped C. myriocarpus and C. gynandra consistently produced greater biomass than intercropped plants, highlighting the suppressive effect of interspecific competition on vegetative growth. The interaction between cropping system and irrigation further showed that water deficit intensified competitive effects, resulting in greater biomass reductions under intercropping than under sole cropping systems. Under water-limited conditions, reduced soil moisture not only restricts physiological processes but also increases competition for belowground resources because nutrient mobility declines and roots must exploit a smaller effective soil volume. These findings underscore the importance of adequate soil moisture in sustaining both individual crop growth and intercrop productivity. Similar responses were reported by (Zahedi et al., 2025; Yavas et al., 2024), who noted that water-stressed plants often allocate resources towards stem elongation at the expense of leaf expansion as a drought-avoidance strategy. However, reduced leaf area limits photosynthetic capacity and assimilate production, ultimately constraining dry matter accumulation and yield (Lambers and Oliveira, 2019). While some researchers have reported that intercropping can partially alleviate drought stress through complementary water extraction and improved resource-use efficiency, the present results indicate that such facilitative effects were insufficient to offset competition under severe water deficit, particularly in the dry bean + C. gynandra system (Lambers and Oliveira, 2019).

This study was primarily limited to the assessment of soil physicochemical properties, crop water-use efficiency, and crop performance under different cropping systems and irrigation regimes. Soil biological properties, such as microbial biomass, enzyme activity, and microbial community composition, were not included in the analysis. This exclusion was mainly due to the scope and objectives of the study, which focused on soil fertility indicators directly linked to plant water availability, nutrient status, and crop productivity under deficit irrigation conditions. Despite these limitations, the selected soil physicochemical indicators provide reliable and widely accepted measures of soil fertility and environmental response to irrigation and cropping systems. However, future research should integrate soil biological, chemical, and physical indicators to provide a more comprehensive understanding of soil health and ecosystem functioning under intercropping and deficit irrigation systems.

5 Conclusions

This study demonstrated that both cropping system and irrigation level significantly influenced crop growth, biomass production, yield performance, water-use efficiency, and soil physicochemical properties. The interaction between these factors played an important role in regulating crop productivity and soil nutrient dynamics, highlighting the importance of integrating appropriate water management and cropping strategies in water-limited production systems. Although moderate deficit irrigation (75% DI) resulted in some reductions in productivity relative to full irrigation, it maintained acceptable crop growth, yield, water-use efficiency, and soil physicochemical conditions, demonstrating its potential as a water-conserving irrigation strategy.

Cropping system significantly influenced both crop performance and soil physicochemical properties. Sole dry bean consistently produced the greatest growth and yield; however, the performance of intercropping systems varied according to the companion crop. Among the intercrop combinations evaluated, the dry bean + Cucumis myriocarpus intercrop exhibited greater compatibility and tolerance to water deficit than the dry bean + Cleome gynandra intercrop, maintaining productivity levels closer to those of sole dry bean under reduced irrigation. The study further showed that dry bean-based systems generally maintained higher concentrations of exchangeable cations and greater cation exchange capacity than systems dominated by Cleome gynandra. Based on these findings, 75% DI represents a viable water-saving strategy, as it maintains relatively stable soil moisture conditions that sustain nutrient mobility and reduce excessive salinity buildup while conserving irrigation water. The dry bean + Cucumis myriocarpus intercrop appears better adapted to water-limited conditions due to stronger functional complementarity and lower interspecific competition compared with the dry bean + Cleome gynandra system.

5.1 Recommendations

Future research should the long-term impacts of deficit irrigation and intercropping on soil physicochemical and biological properties, water productivity, and economic viability across diverse agroecological zones to further evaluate the sustainability and scalability of these production systems. Investigate the long-term dynamics of salt accumulation under repeated deficit irrigation, particularly its interaction with soil texture and rainfall patterns, as well as quantify the balance between facilitation and competition in intercropping systems using detailed root trait and rhizosphere process measurements. Integrating soil biological indicators would also improve understanding of the microbial mechanisms driving nutrient cycling under these management practices.

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