The Research WG has been the most active subgroup of the Bsal Task Force relative to peer-reviewed science-product development ( Table 2 ). Their robust research portfolio aims to fill information gaps about Bsal epidemiology and to better characterize the potential threat of Bsal chytridiomycosis to North American amphibians. The WG has made significant advances in understanding Bsal host-species susceptibility, pathogenesis, immune defenses, and transmission dynamics in susceptible North American and European salamanders. As new information has developed, novel North American Bsal risk models have been created by participants of both the Research and Decision Science WGs (US: Grear et al., 2021; Gray et al., 2023b), as well as by independent scientists and partners (Mexico: Basanta et al., 2019; Ontario, Canada: Crawshaw et al., 2022; US: Moubarak et al., 2022). Also, socioeconomic research has been initiated to address biosecurity practices in US pet amphibians (see Healthy Trade WG; Cavasos et al., 2023a; Cavasos et al., 2023b; Cavasos et al., 2023c) and the role of visitors in preventing pathogen threats in natural areas (Cavasos et al., 2023d). Specific examples follow.

Bsal susceptibility trials in 35 North American amphibian species (10 families) showed that infection was detectable in 74% of species and deaths were observed in 35% of species (Gray et al., 2023b), building on the earlier studies such as Martel et al. (2014); Friday et al. (2020); Carter et al. (2020), and DiRenzo et al. (2021) that also documented susceptibility in a diversity of North American species ( Table 3 ; Supplementary Materials ). These results have supported the contention that many North American amphibian species are at risk for population declines, with the greatest predicted biodiversity losses in the Appalachian Region and along the Pacific Coast, confirming the expectations from the early Bsal risk maps (e.g., Richgels et al., 2016). Susceptible species ( Supplementary Materials ; Figure 3 ; Table 3 ) have included both salamanders (see also Carter et al., 2020) and anurans (see also Towe et al., 2021), including species that commonly occur in the pet trade (e.g., Osteopilus septentrionalis, Ambystoma mexicanum; Gray et al., 2023b). Some of these species were susceptible to Bsal infection and may be carriers, as not all tested species developed lethal disease in laboratory trials. Ongoing studies focus on Bsal-infection and -chytriodiomycosis susceptibility in additional native North American amphibian species as well as other species that occur in the pet trade.

Using Bsal-susceptible rough-skinned newts (Taricha granulosa) and eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens) as model species, critical information about the mechanisms of Bsal-induced physiological changes and immune defenses have been revealed. For example, to address the question of what may lead to death from Bsal chytridiomycosis, an extensive study of the blood cells, blood chemistry, and histological changes at various stages of disease progression was conducted in the rough-skinned newts. Electrolyte imbalances were associated with clinically diseased newts as compared to non-diseased newts, and as Bsal loads increased, blood potassium levels increased, sodium and chloride ion concentrations decreased, and disruption of the skin led to dehydration and potential disruption of granular glands that produce defensive peptides (Sheley et al., 2023). Studies of the capacity of skin secretions from additional salamander species to inhibit Bsal in vitro showed mixed results, with some species showing effective secretions whereas others had less-effective secretions (Pereira et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2018; Carter et al., 2021; Pereira and Woodley, 2021; Hardman et al., 2023). Although clinically diseased rough-skinned newts showed evidence of a systemic inflammatory response, they were unable to clear the infection prior to death (Sheley et al., 2023). Although Bsal can induce immune responses, the pathogen can also inhibit lymphocyte responses, suggesting local immune suppression (Rollins-Smith et al., 2022).

In a comprehensive study of temperature effects on susceptibility of eastern newts to Bsal (Carter et al., 2021), greater mortality of both eft-stage newts and adult newts was observed at 14°C in comparison with 6°C or 22°C. Because 22°C is approaching the upper limit of Bsal growth, there were no persistent Bsal infections at this temperature except in efts exposed to the highest initial dose. When eastern newts were exposed to relatively high numbers of zoospores (5 x 10⁴) and maintained at a cold temperature (6°C), their production or release of putative defensive peptides from granular glands was reduced in comparison with unexposed controls. The relative abundance of bacteria inhibitory to Bsal was greater at 22°C as compared to the lower temperatures of 14°C and 6°C, suggesting that temperature-mediated shifts in the skin microbiome may contribute to host protection at warmer temperatures in eastern newts. This supports an earlier study of the skin microbiome of fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) in Europe in which wild salamanders had anti-Bsal bacteria in their communities but at low abundance, and the experimental increase of these anti-Bsal bacteria by daily additions slowed disease progression (Bletz et al., 2018). More broadly, changing climatic conditions may lead to some decreases in climatic suitability for Bsal in the United States (Grisnik et al., 2023).

Lastly, research has investigated modes of Bsal transmission and utility of some applied management strategies. Transmission between individual amphibian hosts can occur by swimming zoospores or by direct contact of infected individuals with susceptible hosts (Malagon et al., 2020; Tompros et al., 2022a). In eastern newts, all susceptible hosts were infected following one or more contacts with an infected host, resulting in 89% mortality over three months (Malagon et al., 2020). Even one contact for about one second was sufficient to result in transmission (Malagon et al., 2020). Although host-contact rates are density-dependent (Malagon et al., 2020), further analysis suggested that transmission is frequency-dependent (Tompros et al., 2022a). Relative to considerations for applied management actions to reduce Bsal effects on susceptible hosts, introduction of artificial plants to increase habitat complexity reduced host contacts but did not markedly reduce mortality, and transmission remained high (Malagon et al., 2020). Possible management strategies for Bsal include use of plant-derived fungicides (Tompros et al., 2022b) or probiotics that may reduce Bsal transmission or possibly treating Bsal-contaminated habitats or hosts (also see below, Decision Science WG; Bernard and Grant, 2021). The management response to Bsal detection at a field site in Spain 1000 km from the nearest European Bsal outbreak included biosecurity measures, habitat management and disinfection, host removal, and disease surveillance, resulting in temporary Bsal containment (Martel et al., 2020). This response can inform North American approaches, as can additional approaches considered for Bd management (Garner et al., 2016; Mendelson et al., 2019). Additional research guided by management-driven needs identified by the Research, Decision Science (e.g., Bernard and Grant, 2019; Bernard and Grant, 2021), Response and Control, and Healthy Trade WGs will help to advance conservation efficacy in North American jurisdictions.

Despite a decade of progress, much remains to be learned about amphibian immune defenses against Bsal, including innate defenses (e.g., antimicrobial peptides), adaptive immune defenses (lymphocyte-mediated), and the role of the microbiome. Identifying strategies to boost host immunity (e.g., use of probiotics, vaccination) or altered environmental characteristics (e.g., habitat complexity, temperature) to protect vulnerable species is a top priority. Identifying additional microbes that could be used to modify naturally occurring microbial communities in the skin mucus (e.g., a probiotics approach) to protect highly vulnerable species, while challenging, merits exploration. Investigating how host-amphibian community structure influences the impacts of Bsal in a natural setting could inform mitigation efforts if Bsal is accidentally introduced to susceptible North American communities. Because many North American amphibian species are also infected with Bd, determining how a dual infection with both Bd and Bsal would affect amphibian communities is another high-priority challenge. One study of experimental dual infections in eastern newts suggested that simultaneous Bd and Bsal infections were more harmful than single infections (Longo et al., 2019).

The Diagnostics WG includes interdisciplinary experts who regularly examine specimen samples for the presence of amphibian pathogens. An initial critical task for the group was to reach consensus on a Bsal case definition to establish diagnostic criteria for validating a positive Bsal-chytridiomycosis DNA detection and develop criteria for establishing infection and disease presentation (White et al., 2016). This effort aided standardized communication of results and consistent reporting among diagnostic laboratories to provide reliable information to amphibian-disease ecologists and wildlife managers. Although many options exist for laboratory diagnostic methods for Bsal DNA detection in a specimen sample, the ‘gold standard’ relies on molecular methods with quantitative polymerase chain reactions (qPCR) for verification of Bsal (Blooi et al., 2013; Martel et al., 2013). Critical to this designation is the recognition that a positive Bsal-DNA result from one diagnostic laboratory does not necessarily imply an infected population.

Although qPCR tests for Bsal DNA were established upon recognition of the novel pathogen (Blooi et al., 2013; Standish et al., 2018; Thomas et al., 2018), the use of different protocols among laboratories has raised concerns regarding the consistency of results (e.g., Iwanowicz et al., 2017). In 2020, with the support of Environment and Climate Change Canada, the Diagnostics WG initiated a round-robin ​test among over 40 diagnostic and research laboratories worldwide ( Bsal Task Force, 2023b ). The round-robin exercise aimed to test the proficiency of participating laboratories running qPCR tests to detect Bd and Bsal, either individually (single qPCR) or together (duplex qPCR). Blind samples consisting of various concentrations of the chytrid fungi dripped onto cotton swabs (to mimic samples obtained from swabbing amphibians), were shipped to participants, and results were collated and analyzed. A summary of the results, which was shared with all participants maintaining the anonymity of individual values, resulted in a high level of participation (over 95% of laboratories who received samples reported results), and highlighted discrepancies such as false negative and false positive results. Perhaps the most striking inconsistency related to the calculation of DNA copies per sample: calculations varied by up to three orders of magnitude among some laboratories. Although no specific explanation for this inconsistency has been proposed, the results of the round-robin test are currently being analyzed in the hope of detecting factors that may have caused laboratories to report such varying numbers of DNA copy numbers. Results of these ongoing analyses along with the methodology and results of the round-robin are planned for independent publication. In addition, recently, a non-profit organization (Healthy Trade Institute, Inc., HTI) was created to help facilitate incorporation of biosecurity practices in US pet amphibian businesses and reduce the likelihood of chytrid fungi and ranaviruses in trade. The HTI will be recruiting laboratories to run diagnostic samples associated with a Healthy Trade Certification Program. Diagnostic competency of the laboratories will be verified following a similar round-robin approach.

Owing to the high expected consequences of a Bsal-positive detection in North America, uncertain data resulting from sample contamination during either field collection or laboratory procedures, cross-reactivity of other sample components (e.g., Iwanowicz et al., 2017), or reduced sensitivity of the laboratory test conducted, Bsal-positive detections by two independent laboratories have been incorporated into the Bsal Task Force Rapid Response Template ( Bsal Task Force, 2022 ). In Europe, diagnostic recommendations for Bsal detection were developed by Thomas et al. (2018) and similarly included duplicate samples from live animals for qPCR testing as per procedures by Blooi et al. (2013), and post-mortem screening of skin-swab samples and histopathology confirming the presence of the fungus in the skin. The Diagnostics WG continues to focus on the development of new techniques and technologies. For example, the more-recent development of an in situ hybridization protocol to detect and differentiate Bd and Bsal in histologic samples has increased the reliability of histopathologic diagnosis of Bsal infection (Ossiboff et al., 2019). As a service to the Bsal science-and-management community, for those interested in Bsal testing options, the Diagnostics WG maintains a current list of open diagnostic laboratories on the Bsal Task Force website (diagnostics.salamanderfungus.org).

Decision science is an interdisciplinary field with associated tools for framing and solving complex decision problems and is particularly useful for decisions with large uncertainties. For example, where multiple uncertainties exist, decision theory offers tools to quantify and rank the relative importance of knowledge gaps that impede identifying the optimal management strategy to reduce the risk of Bsal. Further, natural-resource managers must often consider multiple social, economic, and ecological objectives in their decisions, and these may induce difficult trade-offs for any given disease-management strategy. To this end, members of the Decision Science WG bring expertise to support management decisions where Bsal is a known or potential risk for native amphibian population declines.

Decision Science WG accomplishments align with its four chief aims: 1) identify critical research that has the highest information value, which will lead to an improved ability to manage Bsal; 2) identify approaches to improve proactive management of Bsal when uncertainty or competing objectives are impediments to action; 3) conduct and update Bsal risk assessments; and 4) work with management agencies to help frame and solve Bsal management problems. Addressing the first aim, Grant et al. (2016b) identified that the most important proactive conservation mitigation would be to reduce Bsal introduction to North America, providing science support to inform key policy decisions such as the restriction of salamander imports to North America. Correspondingly, in 2015 The Pet Advocacy Network in the US recommended a temporary and immediate voluntary trade moratorium on imports of salamander species imported from Asia that were known to carry Bsal until such time as effective testing and treatment regimens could be developed and distributed (Pet Product News, 2015). In Canada, a similar temporary moratorium was supported for a ban on importation of fire belly and paddle-tail newts (Cynops spp. and Pachytriton labiatus, respectively) native to Asia, which were possible vectors of Bsal (PIJAC Canada, 2016). The US enacted an interim rule of the Lacey Act that banned importation of 201 species of salamanders (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2016). Canada implemented a permit requirement for the importation of all salamanders whether live or dead (CBSA, 2018).

Addressing the second aim, Bernard and Grant (2019) worked closely with managers to identify decision-problem elements common to both Bsal chytridiomycosis and bat white-nose syndrome, which help to understand impediments to making management decisions. Importantly, whereas research uncertainties are often initially identified as key impediments to mounting a management response, Bernard and Grant (2019) found that other challenges existed; addressing the full complexity of the challenging decisions for Bsal management is expected to lead to improved management responses. Indeed, although uncertainty is an important impediment, the working group proposed that existing models and information can be used to make useful predictions for developing and assessing management strategies (Russell et al., 2017).

To address the third aim, Richgels et al. (2016) developed an initial risk assessment that used environmental suitability for Bsal and host-species richness in the US, combined with risk of introduction from the pet trade, to help inform US Fish and Wildlife Service’s decision-making process for evaluating a ruling under the Lacey Act. This assessment had general agreement to that of Yap et al. (2015), conducted independently, which covered a similar geography using a different approach. The Richgels et al. (2016) county-level risk model informed US surveillance efforts for Bsal (Waddle et al., 2020). Subsequently, Grear et al. (2021) combined the ban on importation of amphibians under the Lacey Act with US surveillance data (Waddle et al., 2020) to update a risk model to inform additional surveillance efforts (see next section) and to identify areas of highest importance for the development and implementation of proactive management actions. The recently updated risk-assessment model by the Research WG (Gray et al., 2023b) added specificity to species-risk predictions resulting from knowledge gains from experimental trials and supports main risk geographies in Richgels et al. (2016).

Finally, to address the fourth aim of the WG, consultations with national-resource managers have identified common concerns and perceived impediments to Bsal management. More in-depth work with multiple resource managers (e.g., US Fish and Wildlife Service; US Forest Service; State of New Mexico) has helped to structure their decision-making processes. The WG used a formal process of expert judgment to parameterize a predictive model to help quantitatively evaluate management actions proposed among TAC working groups (Bernard and Grant, 2021).

The decision science working group will continue to work with resource management agencies to frame and help solve their Bsal decision problems, revealing critical uncertainties that can be addressed by other Bsal Task Force working groups (e.g., Research, Surveillance and Monitoring). Development of decision support tools and synthesis of decision challenges will aid in expanding the utility of the group’s decision analysis work.

The mission of the Surveillance & Monitoring WG is to facilitate and coordinate surveillance for Bsal across North America, and the monitoring of Bsal in the event of its detection. Early detection of Bsal would allow for a rapid response to safeguard native fauna, but achieving a broad and robust surveillance network is difficult and expensive because of the human resources needed, including the costs of laboratory testing. No single organizational entity has this capacity. Instead, the emphasis of the Surveillance & Monitoring WG has been to coordinate and encourage sampling for Bsal by diverse partners, with broad spatiotemporal scope in consideration of high-risk species and geographies (e.g., Yap et al., 2015; Richgels et al., 2016; Basanta et al., 2019; Grear et al., 2021; Gray et al., 2023b; Grisnik et al., 2023).

Initial WG efforts toward this goal included a one-time sampling effort conducted by the US Geological Survey Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (ARMI) from 2014 to 2017 (Waddle et al., 2020), including sample sites across the US and resources allocated according to the estimated risk of Bsal occurrence (Richgels et al., 2016). Over 10,000 amphibians (mostly salamanders) were sampled and Bsal was not detected (Waddle et al., 2020; data archived at amphibiandisease.org by the Data Management Working Group, see below). ARMI and the US Fish and Wildlife Service have continued to sample at a very low level in selected areas where resources allow. However, a targeted effort is ongoing in Appalachia, which is one of the projected high-risk areas in the US (Yap et al., 2015; Richgels et al., 2016; Gray et al., 2023b; Grisnik et al., 2023).

More recently, the emphasis of the Surveillance & Monitoring WG has been to coordinate and facilitate Bsal sampling with broad spatiotemporal scope in consideration of high-risk species and locations. To this end, the WG has successfully developed, launched, and maintained the Student Network for Amphibian Pathogen Surveillance program (SNAPS; https://snaps.amphibiandisease.org/), which aims to increase Bsal sampling and awareness, engage diverse partners and citizen scientists, and utilize dispersed in-kind resources. SNAPS is a cross-continental network of students, scientists, and educators committed to the conservation of amphibians against the threat of emerging pathogens, with an initial focus on Bsal ( Figure 4 ). The SNAPS approach is to embed Bsal surveillance into undergraduate college and university curricula where students learn about the amphibian-chytrid disease system, One Health, biosecurity protocols, and data collection, while contributing to a meaningful conservation initiative. Bsal sampling is a straightforward procedure that involves swabbing the skin of amphibians and is an ideal field activity for novices with training and supervision by their instructors. The network facilitates meaningful field and research experiences for students while harnessing their enthusiasm and geographic breadth to surveille for Bsal across the continent. To date, more than 2,300 amphibians have been sampled (see our open-access data portal at https://amphibiandisease.org/projects/?id=284), with a focus on key geographies that have been flagged as high-risk for Bsal introduction (Yap et al., 2015; Basanta et al., 2019), and 600+ students from more than 70 institutions have participated in sampling events across Canada, the US and Mexico ( Figure 4 ).

Recruitment of additional schools to participate in SNAPS is ongoing although obtaining long-term funding and diversifying participation in SNAPS is challenging. Field-based courses and authentic research experiences for underserved, underrepresented students can help close demographic gaps in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) related fields, foster a sense of self-efficacy and belonging, and enhance feelings of comfort in the outdoors (Zavaleta et al., 2020). The WG’s goals include strategically expanding and diversifying the SNAPS network to include students from populations that are underrepresented in STEM, introductory-level students, students with career interests outside the fields of conservation and ecology, and a greater variety and larger number of institution types, including field stations, community colleges, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic-Serving Institutions, R2 institutions and Indigenous First Nations, through Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion initiatives described by Ruggs and Hebl (2012).

Early Bsal detection through surveillance of both captive and wild amphibians is also being conducted by partners and independent scientists (e.g., Canada: Govindarajulu et al., 2017; Fieschi-Méric et al., 2023; Mexico: Basanta et al., 2022; US: Klocke et al., 2017; Gluesenkamp et al., 2018; Hill et al., 2021). A recent study funded by the US National Science Foundation identified factors contributing to amphibian pathogen movements through US trade networks (https://www.healthyamphibiantrade.org). As new surveillance projects develop, key considerations include the diagnostic uncertainties stemming from both sampling and laboratory procedures discussed in the previous section, and the need for sufficient sample sizes per relevant unit of study such as species, life-history stage, or site (e.g., Skerratt et al., 2008; Gray et al., 2017). In addition to the mix of coordinated and independent surveillance by sampling wild or captive amphibians, rapid-response networks have been initiated to report amphibian disease die-offs that might be caused by Bsal, including direct communication with state or provincial authorities or Bsal Task Force members, or use of PARC’s Herpetofaunal Disease Alert System (HDAS; Gray et al., 2018: To report, email disease reports to herp_disease_alert@parcplace.org for them to forward to state and provincial authorities; include photograph, species affected, location, other relevant episode information, observer’s name). If sufficient information is provided, social media reports can be routed to HDAS. Lastly, Bd detection has been performed on all samples tested for Bsal, thus expanding Bd monitoring efforts in North America.

The focus of the Data Management WG has been to develop an online Bsal and Bd data aggregation portal to accelerate sharing of planned or completed surveillance projects and scientific studies and to facilitate the pace of learning about these pathogens. Several key products have been completed: 1) establishment and a description of the structural underpinnings of the Bsal and Bd Amphibian Disease web portal (amphibiandisease.org), with an important roadmap for the incorporation of the legacy Bd-maps.net dataset (Koo et al., 2021); 2) imports of USGS survey results for Bsal in 2014–2017 (USA: Waddle et al., 2020), results from the Bsal Consortium of Germany (see special edition of Salamandra, Volume 56[3]), and integration of the SNAPS effort as an ongoing project in the web portal ( Figure 4 ); and 3) a global Bd update (Olson et al., 2021b) with transference of the Bd-maps.net database (formerly archived at Imperial College, London, UK: Olson et al., 2013) updated through 2019 to the new web portal, inclusive of database DOI references. Although the Bsal data repository is growing, the utility of our web portal to the world community is supported by recent Bd metadata analyses and risk-assessment publications using exported globally compiled data archived in the Amphibian Disease database that focus conservation-planning attention on more defined geographies and taxa (e.g., Suriname: Rawien and Jairam-Doerga, 2022; West Africa: Ghose et al., 2023).

Features of the Amphibian Disease web portal are multifaceted. Planned and completed projects can be included, increasing research and management efficiencies across taxa and geographies. Portal data include the capacity for field, captive, and museum-specimen amphibian reports, eDNA results from water samples, pathogen strain identification, and inclusion of infection intensity (zoospore load) and disease symptoms. The portal’s species-specific data summary pages can be dynamically linked to external websites (e.g., AmphibiaWeb) so users can see if any amphibian has been tested for chytridiomycosis. Partnering with the global bio-sampling database Geome (geome-db.org) has enhanced research and forecasting abilities by delivering improved validation services, enhancing security, and improving data accessibility through third-party applications and programming tools.

Ongoing and planned work includes maintenance and web programming tasks to expand data visualizations of the Bd and Bsal data such as country- and species-summary charts and custom query interfaces. Collaboration with the Bsal Surveillance and Monitoring WG has provided a central repository for a network of North American colleges and universities engaged in Bsal surveillance so educators can focus on curricula and simply use the AmphibianDisease portal’s features. Updating data and advancing the functional capacity, especially as an educational tool, of the Amphibian Disease Portal is on the horizon. Further, links to other online scientific web portals would help extend the portal’s reach to other audiences in education and conservation. Expanded outreach to surveillance communities to report projects, disease symptoms, strains, and zoospore loads is needed, inclusive of outreach to journals and permitting agencies to help with portal messaging. Many of these plans highlight the ongoing funding needs for development, which the Data Management Working Group seeks through collaborative grants and strategic partnerships.

The aims of the Response & Control WG have changed as both proactive and reactive management responses to Bsal have been addressed in tandem. The Bsal Rapid Response Template created by the initial Response WG (Grant et al., 2016b) was one of the most urgent initial priorities of the Task Force ( Table 1 ). This template was intended to be updated and improved over time. The most recent revision occurred in 2019 and is included as an Appendix in the 2022 North American Bsal Strategic Plan ( Bsal Task Force, 2022 ). The template considers scenarios of Bsal detection in both wild and captive situations and is intended to be customized to different users and for different contexts of Bsal detection to support a more efficient and rapid response. Scenarios include: a mortality event in the wild or in captivity; non-definitive Bsal detection from a laboratory PCR test result (wild or captive); and a definitive Bsal detection in the wild or captivity. Important components of this template include: 1) a Bsal-positive result from laboratory analysis of a skin swab or eDNA sample is not considered a “definitive detection,” and confirmation by a second independent laboratory is needed (see Diagnostics WG section above); 2) collection of tissue and/or whole animals suspected to be infected with Bsal for diagnostic testing can aid accurate, confirmed diagnosis; 3) directions for swab or tissue collection are included in the template; 4) establishment of biosecurity measures to reduce potential human-mediated Bsal transmission; and 5) mandatory notification of the agency or agencies with management jurisdiction of the site (i.e., initiation of an Incident Command Structure, Figure 2 ; Hopkins et al., 2018), which can trigger national and international coordination. For example, an immediate report by a US State Animal Health Professional to the US National Animal Health Reporting System (NAHRS) can help advise development of the Incident Command Structure ( Figure 2 ) to help coordinate communication and actions. As this unfolds, consultation with members of the Bsal Task Force can expedite planned response actions in the context of the detection. As Bsal is listed as a reportable disease with the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH, 2023), this reporting step would be followed by the national authority.

Currently, the Response & Control WG is focused on: 1) creating a more direct version of the Rapid Response Template resolving likely stall points in rapid, effective Bsal responses after initial detection; and 2) exploring tools or systems to make the response template (or its contents) easier to access or use. Initial stall points have been identified in various scenario exercises (e.g., Hopkins et al., 2018; Canessa et al., 2020), and include regulatory authorities and restrictions, legal issues, and permissions or authorizations necessary to implement field or captive response measures. As these scenarios have unfolded, it has become apparent that numerous and different authorities may need to be consulted, and guidance for approved actions followed per authority. One focus of the WG supports the efforts of the US Fish and Wildlife Service in development of a national-scale US Department of Interior Categorical Exclusion (CatEx) for management of invasive species, including pathogens. Acceptance of the CatEx would be instrumental in rapid-response efforts. Ongoing work also includes development of easy-to-follow Incident Command Structures ( Figure 2 ) similar to the US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for disaster response or Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR) templates created for invasive-species control. Lastly, synergies with the Research and Decision Support WGs are planned as new knowledge of amphibian host susceptibility is forthcoming, and procedural dynamics of a rapid response are further defined.

With the growing concern that Bsal could be translocated to North America via trade, the Healthy Trade WG was created in 2020. This WG includes members from the Pet Advocacy Network, US pet amphibian businesses, and academia. Originally called the Clean Trade WG, we renamed it because the intent of the group is not to promote clean/sterile trade, but rather pathogen-free/healthy trade. By pathogen-free, this group is most concerned with Bsal, but there is also plenty of evidence that Bd and ranaviruses are being translocated globally through amphibian trade (Schloegel et al., 2009; Kolby et al., 2014). Most nations do not require animal-health certificates for globally traded amphibians (Grant et al., 2017), despite Bd, Bsal and ranaviruses being listed as notifiable pathogens by the World Organization for Animal Health (e.g., WOAH, 2023). Nevertheless, methods to expedite detection of disease-causing pathogens in trade are advancing (e.g., Brunner, 2020).

A major concern with domestic and international trading of amphibians infected with novel pathogens or variants is spillover to wild populations and native biodiversity loss, which is hypothesized to be how Bsal emerged in Europe (Martel et al., 2014). Pathogens in trade also cause major losses to industry. As such, it is not surprising that most US businesses and consumers support acquiring pathogen-free amphibians (Cavasos et al., 2023a; Cavasos et al., 2023b). In fact, US pet-amphibian consumers are willing to pay up to 75% more for certified pathogen-free amphibians compared to amphibians with unknown health status (Cavasos et al., 2023c). Thus, in 2022, the Healthy Trade Working Group began discussions with 22 stakeholders on possible components of a healthy-trade certification program for US businesses. Four components were identified: online training; use of certain biosecurity practices; animal testing for Bd, Bsal and ranavirus; and response if these pathogens were detected. Subgroups were subsequently created for each of the plan components to draft details, and a follow-up survey is ongoing to receive feedback from US businesses and consumers on the draft plan (https://www.healthyamphibiantrade.org).

Planned efforts of the Healthy Trade WG include working with Pet Advocacy Network, industry, and academic partners to hopefully launch a market-driven US healthy trade certification program for pet amphibians in the near future. Through socioeconomic surveys (Cavasos et al., 2023a; Cavasos et al., 2023b; Cavasos et al., 2023c) and over two years of discussions with industry stakeholders, the Healthy Trade WG has learned that US pet amphibian businesses are supportive of healthy trade practices, especially in comparison to trade bans, which the federal government has used in the past (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2016).

The Communication & Outreach WG supports Task Force activities and goals through the production and promotion of Bsal resources and materials for scientists, managers, and the general public ( Table 2 ). The WG maintains the Task Force website (salamanderfungus.org), which provides outreach communication materials, including the strategic plan and Rapid Response Template, recent highlights, links to resources provided by other WGs (e.g., diagnostic laboratory information; the Bsal data management system: amphibiandisease.org), and annual reports. Initial communications provided outreach to wildlife managers, herpetofaunal conservation groups, and the public (e.g., Olson, 2015). Bsal Task Force annual reports are co-produced by the Amphibian Foundation (amphibianfoundation.org) to summarize the current status of the Bsal fungus and to provide WG updates on accomplishments and new directions in work portfolios. The WG collaborates with partners to produce and distribute materials including scientific and more general articles, flyers, and social media. An annual pulse of communication activities coincides with International Amphibian Week activities promoted by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC, 2023b), which the Bsal Task Force supports through a Twitter [now X] account managed by the WG (twitter.com/salamanderfungi). The PARC Disease Task Team provides complementary outreach materials for Bsal-chytridiomycosis and other diseases (e.g., PARC, 2023a). To increase awareness, the WG works with Bsal Task Force members to coordinate outreach communication at professional conferences, engagement events, and other pertinent venues.