Abstract
Knowledge of the reproductive ecology of male hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in the Caribbean remains limited, constraining the development evidence-based spatial management strategies for breeding areas. To generate preliminary data on the occurrence of adult hawksbill male near the primary rookery in the Gulf of Paria, Venezuela, we conducted biweekly in-water net surveys and monitored artisanal fishing activities from April 2023 to June 2025. In June 2025, one tagged adult male, originally captured in June 2023 near Los Garzos Bay, was recaptured near Las Garcitas, 727 days later and approximately 1.6 km from the original capture site. The turtle was identified as an adult male via tail length and secondary sexual characteristics. Together with opportunistic observations of male–female courtship in the same area, this recapture provides preliminary evidence that adult male hawksbills occur near Las Garcitas Islets and Los Garzos Bay during the breeding period and at the peak of the nesting season. However, current evidence rests on a single local recapture and opportunistic fishery-dependent reports; it therefore does not demonstrate continuous residency, seasonal site fidelity, remigration periodicity, local male abundance, or reproductive connectivity to the rookery. Future research integrating satellite telemetry, multi-season mark–recapture, photo-identification, and genetic analyses will be necessary to assess male occurrence, residence times, movement patterns, and connectivity to nesting populations. This study highlights the Las Garcitas Islets–Los Garzos Bay area as a candidate site for targeted monitoring and future evaluation of seasonal sea turtle conservation actions in collaboration with local fishers.
Introduction
Adult male sea turtles are among the least studied demographic segments of populations because, unlike nesting females, they remain at sea year-round and elude beach-based monitoring, making them difficult to observe, locate, and capture (; ; , ). This knowledge gap limits our understanding of male distribution, mating site fidelity, remigration patterns, residence time near breeding areas, reproductive behavior, and operational sex ratios (OSR), all of which are essential for understanding the role of males in reproductive dynamics, population connectivity, and population viability (; ; , ), particularly in key regions such as the Caribbean Sea ().
Male sea turtles play a crucial role in population dynamics through their contribution to operational sex ratios (OSR), gene flow, reproductive success, and mating strategies, including repeated mating and multiple paternity (; ; ; ; ; ). These processes are particularly relevant because the number and availability of reproductively active males during a breeding season, which ultimately determine OSR, may be shaped by male distribution, mating site fidelity, breeding periodicity, and remigration patterns (; ). The local recapture of an adult male hawksbill turtle provides an opportunity to explore these questions.
In Venezuela, nesting sea turtle studies have predominantly focused on estimating demographic parameters of nesting females—leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the Paria Peninsula (), green turtles (Chelonia mydas) at Aves Island (), and hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata) in the Gulf of Paria (). The latter represents the second-largest rookery for this species in the southern Caribbean Sea (, ).
In-water assessments provide one of the most direct means to study male sea turtles, enabling estimates of male abundance, documentation of reproductive behaviors (including polyandry), and inferences about OSR—all critical parameters for informing conservation management (; ; ; ; ; ). In Venezuela, however, the only neritic research of this kind to date focused primarily on estimating hawksbill turtle distribution in Los Roques Archipelago National Park ().
Fishery-dependent data can complement dedicated scientific surveys by revealing turtle–fishery interaction patterns by generating mark–recapture records that inform movement, site fidelity, survival, and remigration intervals—particularly for rarely observed males (). Such recaptures are especially valuable for assessing repeated use of coastal areas, local residency, or seasonal return during breeding periods.
In western Venezuela, such interactions have been documented at landing sites in the Gulf of Venezuela, based on data from Indigenous Wayuu fisheries (; ; ). Accordingly, the primary objective of this study was to describe preliminary findings from a male hawksbill recapture and associated opportunistic field observations near the main hawksbill rookery in the Gulf of Paria.
Methods
Field sampling
We conducted coastal neritic surveys from April 2023 to June 2025, using two complementary sampling approaches: (1) researcher-led stationary net surveys near Los Garzos Bay, and (2) opportunistic fishery-dependent reports from artisanal fishers at landing sites. Data from the two sampling approaches were not pooled for analyses of abundance, residency, site fidelity, remigration periodicity, or reproductive connectivity, owing to differences in sampling design, effort, reporting, and detection probability.
1. For the researcher-led component, 40 stationary net hauls were planned between April 2023 and November 2024 at a biweekly frequency (i.e., two hauls per month), subject to favorable weather and sea conditions. In total, 33 hauls were completed; 7 were cancelled due to presence of Sargassum spp. mats or to rough seas. Each 2-hour haul was conducted after sunrise (05:00–07:00), yielding a total effective sampling effort of 60 hours (Supplementary Table X1, Supplementary Material).
Fortnightly stationary net hauls (100 × 10 × 0.15 m; length × depth × mesh size) were set perpendicular to the coastline, ~50 m offshore at a depth of ~7 m, on the southwestern side of Los Garzos Bay, adjacent to the main nesting beach in the Gulf of Paria. The deployment site (10.681775, -61.887305) had a depth range of 4–12 m. The site was selected based on proximity to the rookery, prior turtle sightings, fisher knowledge and safe deployment logistics.
The net was deployed from a small boat, remained stationary during each haul, and was monitored continuously by the field team. The net was retrieved either at the end of each haul or earlier if a turtle became entangled or conditions required—the net was retrieved and inspected. For each survey, we recorded date, location, haul duration, number of turtles captured, and effective effort. Capture rate was calculated only for researcher-led surveys (total captures ÷ total effective effort; ). Fisher-reported captures were not included in this effort or rate calculation.
Each turtle was carefully brought aboard, disentangled, identified to species, and measured for curved carapace length and width (CCL and CCW, cm) following . All turtles were kept shaded and wet, and handling time was minimized. Male turtles were identified by the presence of an elongated tail extending beyond the posterior carapace margin—a key secondary sexual characteristic. Tail length was measured whenever possible; otherwise, adult male status was assigned visually.
Body condition was assessed using external indicators (alertness, injuries, bleeding, entanglement marks, buoyancy anomalies, and swimming ability). Turtles were checked for tags; if present, existing codes were recorded, if absent, new Inconel #681 tags were applied to both front flippers (). Photographs (carapace, head, flippers/tags, and other views) were taken prior to release to support photo-identification and document injuries, tag condition, and male characters. All turtles were released at the capture site once alert and swimming normally.
2. Opportunistic fishery-dependent reports were collected separately from researcher-led surveys. From September 2023 to June 2025, reports were gathered from artisanal fishers at landing sites on incidental sea turtle captures in Aricagua Bay (near Macuro) and adjacent areas, including Calera and Las Garcitas Islets.
Capture reports were validated by four trained local assistants, who recorded species, measurements, photographs, timing, location (when available), gear type, tag numbers, and capture/release condition. Only validated reports from collaborating fishers were included. This dataset was opportunistic and subject to unknown bias due to lack of reporting. Consequently, these records cannot be used to infer spatial and temporal turtle distribution, and they were solely used to document turtle–fishery interactions and recapture events. The researcher-led surveys and validated fishery-dependent reports were complementary components of the study but were analyzed separately because of their different sampling designs and objectives.
Results
During research-led surveys in Los Garzos Bay, solitary hawksbills and small groups (up to four individuals) were observed on multiple occasions surfacing and engaging in courtship and mating, especially near Las Garcitas Islets (Figure 1). These opportunistic observations document adult hawksbill presence—including males—in Los Garzos Bay–Las Garcitas area during the breeding period. No systematic estimates of mating frequency, male abundance, residence time, or reproductive connectivity to the rookery were conducted.
Figure 1
A total of nine turtles were captured during the researcher-led surveys: six juvenile green turtles, one adult male green turtle, and two adult male hawksbills. The capture rate was 0.15 turtles h-1. One of the two adult male hawksbills (ID V001M/V002M; CCL = 75 cm, CCW = 64 cm; Supplementary Table X1) was initially captured on 26 June 2023 in Los Garzos Bay (10.681775, -61.887305) and recaptured 727 days later, on 22 June 2025, near Las Garcitas Islets, approximately 2 km from the original capture site (10.687636, -61.875972). Details of the initial capture and subsequent recapture are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1
| Event | Date | Fisher-reported effort (hours) | Captures | Tags | CCL/CCW (cm) | Place | Species | Stage | Sex | Gear type |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 06.09.2023 | 10 | 2 | V003M/V004M V005M/V006M | 35/32 40/36 | Aricagua | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Steady net |
| 2 | 19.09.2023 | 4 | 1 | V007M/V008M | 28/24 | Calera | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Single hook |
| 3 | 19.09.2023 | 8 | 1 | V012M/V013M | 78/70 | Aricagua | E. imbricata | Adult | ♂ | Steady net |
| 4 | 29.10.2023 | 3 | 4 | V016M/V017M V018M/V019M V020M/V021M V022M/V023M | 41/37 47/42 37/33 56/48 | Los Garzos | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Steady net |
| 5 | 16.04.2024 | 8 | 1 | V034M/V0035M | 36/31 | Aricagua | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Steady net |
| 6 | 15.10.2024 | 8 | 1 | V038M/V0039M | 51/42 | Aricagua | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Steady net |
| 7 | 23.10.2024 | 10 | 1 | V041M/V0042M | 30/26 | Aricagua | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Steady net |
| 8 | 25.10.2024 | 8 | 1 | V043M/V0044M | 74/65 | Aricagua | E. imbricata | Adult | ♂ | Steady net |
| 9 | 16.12.2024 | 8 | 1 | V045M/V0046M | 73/63 | Aricagua | E. imbricata | Adult | ♂ | Steady net |
| 10 | 08.03.2025 | 8 | 1 | V047M/V0048M | 34/28 | Aricagua | C. mydas | Juvenile | N/A | Steady net |
| 11 | 22.06.2025 | 12 | 1 | V051M/V052M | 75/64 | Las Garcitas | E. imbricata | Adult | ♂ | Longline* |
Artisanal fisheries bycatch of sea turtles reported in the Gulf of Paria.
* Longline recapture (original tag V001M/V002M). N/A, not assessed.Bolds are Hawksbill.
This record documents the local recapture of one adult male hawksbill near the same rookery area 727 days after initial tagging. Upon recapture, only tag V001M remained; tag V002M had been lost. Individual identity was confirmed by V001M; no photo-identification was used. The turtle received two new tags (V051M/V052M; Figure 2) and was released in good condition. CCL and CCW at recapture were 75 cm and 64 cm, respectively. Adult male status was again confirmed by the elongated tail extending beyond the carapace margin.
Figure 2
Among the validated fishery-dependent records, 15 incidental sea turtle captures were documented using three types of fishing gears: 100 × 10 × 0.15 m stationary nets, single hooks, and a 250 m longline. Stationary nets, similar to those used during the researcher-led surveys, accounted for most captures reported by Aricagua fishers. Table 1 summarizes each event as a researcher-led survey, a validated fisher report, or a recapture associated with artisanal fishing.
Discussion
This first local flipper-tag recapture of an adult male hawksbill near a major rookery provides evidence that one locally tagged male returned to Los Garzos Bay–Las Garcitas area 727 days after initial tagging. Together with repeated opportunistic observations of courtship and mating behavior, this finding documents the occurrence of adult male hawksbills in Los Garzos Bay–Las Garcitas area during the breeding period. However, because this conclusion is based on a single recapture, opportunistic observations, and validated fishery-dependent records, the available evidence remains insufficient to establish continuous residency, seasonal site fidelity, remigration periodicity, local male abundance, reproductive connectivity to the rookery, or confirm the area as key male habitat.
Two non-mutually exclusive hypotheses emerge from these findings and warrant future evaluation. First, some adult males may occur repeatedly near Los Garzos Bay–Las Garcitas area during successive breeding seasons. Alternatively, males may return only during breeding years separated by one or more skipped seasons, producing the apparent multi-year recapture interval documented here. These hypotheses are consistent with questions that have been more thoroughly investigated in male green and loggerhead turtles, including breeding periodicity, operational sex ratios (OSR), and breeding-area fidelity (; ; ; ). Comparable information, however, remains scarce for male hawksbill turtles.
Environmental conditions may also contribute to explaining male occurrence in the area and deserve future investigation. The anticyclonic circulation described for the Gulf of Paria () could influence local turtle retention or movement, while seasonal productivity peaks during the rainy season (June–November; ) may affect benthic prey availability. Likewise, a previously published recapture of a hawksbill turtle originally tagged in Puerto Rico and later recovered approximately 1,200 km away in Los Garzos Bay () suggests that at least some hawksbills using the Gulf of Paria participate in broader regional movements. Although independent from the present recapture, that record provides valuable regional context and highlights the need for further research on male occurrence, movement patterns, residence time, breeding-site connectivity, and local male abundance.
The present findings do not justify immediate fishery closures, seasonal restrictions, or the designation of Los Garzos Bay and Las Garcitas Islets as confirmed key male habitat. Instead, they identify Los Garzos Bay–Las Garcitas area as a candidate area for targeted monitoring, participatory risk assessment, and the future evaluation of seasonal mitigation measures developed collaboratively with local fishers. Because the focal male was recaptured in artisanal fishing gear, priority actions should include strengthening fisher reporting, promoting safe handling and release protocols, providing training, systematically documenting gear interactions, and encouraging photographic documentation of captures. Together, these measures would generate the evidence required to evaluate future conservation actions and support spatial management strategies for hawksbill turtles in the Gulf of Paria.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Ethics statement
The animal study was approved by Dirección General de Biodiversidad, Minec, Venezuela. The study was conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.
Author contributions
CB: Data curation, Writing – original draft, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Supervision. MG-C: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Visualization. JA: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Visualization. HB-G: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Visualization.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The 2023 and 2024 seasons of this study were funded by the Marine Conservation Action Fund (MCAF) of the New England Aquarium, with additional support of the International Sea Turtle Society Small Grants. The 2025 season was financed by Conservation Connect.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank the Macuro seamen—Modesto García, Jose Reinoza, Oliver Mata, Eduardo Orfila, and Dámaso Urbano—for their collaboration in the Gulf of Paria. Flipper tags were generously supplied by the Marine Conservation Action Fund of the New England Aquarium. We also thank Juan Carlos Amilibia of Provita NGO for map preparation, and Provita for administering international funds. Authors are grateful to David Die and Matthew Ware for their assistance in reviewing and improving the technical English of this manuscript. This work will contribute to CB’s Ph.D. dissertation at Universidad Central de Venezuela’s Department of Ecology.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The handling editor SM declared a past co-authorship with the author HB-G.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/famrs.2026.1818436/full#supplementary-material
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Summary
Keywords
fishery-dependent monitoring, male hawksbill, mark–recapture, operational sex ratio, sea turtles, Southern Caribbean Sea
Citation
Balladares C, Garcia-Cruz M, Alio J and Barrios-Garrido H (2026) First local flipper-tag recapture of a male hawksbill turtle near a major rookery in the Gulf of Paria, Venezuela. Front. Amphib. Reptile Sci. 4:1818436. doi: 10.3389/famrs.2026.1818436
Received
26 February 2026
Revised
21 July 2026
Accepted
27 July 2026
Published
09 September 2026
Volume
4 - 2026
Edited by
Sara M. Maxwell, University of Washington Bothell, United States
Reviewed by
Carlos Bustamante, University of Antofagasta, Chile
Carlos Pacheco, José Benito Vives of Andréis Marine and Coastal Research Institute, Colombia
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Balladares, Garcia-Cruz, Alio and Barrios-Garrido.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Clemente Balladares, cballadares86@gmail.com
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.