AUTHOR=Bao Jiahao , Tan Zongcai , Sun Yifeng , Xu Xinyu , Liu Huazhen , Cui Weiyi , Yang Yang , Cheng Mengjia , Wang Yiming , Ku Congshuang , Ho Yuen Ka , Zhu Jiayi , Fan Linfeng , Qian Dahong , Shen Shunyao , Wen Yaofeng , Yu Hongbo 

TITLE=Deep ensemble learning-driven fully automated multi-structure segmentation for precision craniomaxillofacial surgery

JOURNAL=Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology

VOLUME=Volume 13 - 2025

YEAR=2025

URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bioengineering-and-biotechnology/articles/10.3389/fbioe.2025.1580502

DOI=10.3389/fbioe.2025.1580502

ISSN=2296-4185

ABSTRACT=ObjectivesAccurate segmentation of craniomaxillofacial (CMF) structures and individual teeth is essential for advancing computer-assisted CMF surgery. This study developed CMF-ELSeg, a novel fully automatic multi-structure segmentation model based on deep ensemble learning.MethodsA total of 143 CMF computed tomography (CT) scans were retrospectively collected and manually annotated by experts for model training and validation. Three 3D U-Net–based deep learning models (V-Net, nnU-Net, and 3D UX-Net) were benchmarked. CMF-ELSeg employed a coarse-to-fine cascaded architecture and an ensemble approach to integrate the strengths of these models. Segmentation performance was evaluated using Dice score and Intersection over Union (IoU) by comparing model predictions to ground truth annotations. Clinical feasibility was assessed through qualitative and quantitative analyses.ResultsIn coarse segmentation of the upper skull, mandible, cervical vertebra, and pharyngeal cavity, 3D UX-Net and nnU-Net achieved Dice scores above 0.96 and IoU above 0.93. For fine segmentation and classification of individual teeth, the cascaded 3D UX-Net performed best. CMF-ELSeg improved Dice scores by 3%–5% over individual models for facial soft tissue, upper skull, mandible, cervical vertebra, and pharyngeal cavity segmentation, and maintained high accuracy Dice > 0.94 for most teeth. Clinical evaluation confirmed that CMF-ELSeg performed reliably in patients with skeletal malocclusion, fractures, and fibrous dysplasia.ConclusionCMF-ELSeg provides high-precision segmentation of CMF structures and teeth by leveraging multiple models, serving as a practical tool for clinical applications and enhancing patient-specific treatment planning in CMF surgery.