Assessment of liquefaction potential of palar sand blended with rubber tire using cyclic triaxial testing

Abstract

Liquefaction of saturated sandy soils during seismic loading is a critical geotechnical issue, and the use of recycled tire-derived materials has emerged as a sustainable method for improving soil behavior. This study investigates the influence of tire powder on the liquefaction resistance and dynamic properties of Palar sand using cyclic triaxial testing. Sand–tire powder mixtures containing 0%–50% tire powder were tested under undrained cyclic loading at different shear strain amplitudes (0.5%–0.7%) and confining pressures. Excess pore water pressure ratio, liquefaction resistance, shear modulus, and damping ratio were evaluated. The results indicate that tire powder inclusion enhances liquefaction resistance by reducing pore water pressure buildup and increasing energy dissipation. The number of cycles required to induce liquefaction increased with tire powder content, with an optimum content of approximately 35% showing improved performance. As tire powder content increased from 0% to 50%, the damping ratio increased from about 2.5% to 18%, while the shear modulus decreased from 26 MPa to 14 MPa. The findings suggest that tire powder modifies the cyclic response of sand through enhanced compressibility, drainage characteristics, and particle interaction, demonstrating its potential as a sustainable geomaterial for liquefaction mitigation and ground improvement.

1 Introduction

The generation of scrap tires has increased rapidly due to the continuous growth in the number of vehicles worldwide. Recent estimates indicate that approximately 3 billion new tires are produced globally each year, while nearly 1.5 billion tires reach their end-of-life stage annually, generating a substantial volume of non-biodegradable waste worldwide. This continuous increase is primarily driven by the rapid growth in vehicle ownership and industrialization across developing and developed economies. According to the ETRMA (2019) more than 324 million tires were sold in Europe in 2019. Similarly, India produced over 169 million tires during 2020–2021. In the United States, nearly 9.16 million tons of tire and leather waste were generated in 2018. These statistics highlight the seriousness of the scrap tire disposal problem at a global scale. An estimated one billion waste tires are generated each year globally, with approximately 240–250 million tires produced annually in the United States alone, corresponding to more than 4 million tons of scrap tires worldwide (Laftah et al., 2025; Nerea et al., 2026).

The disposal of used tires remains a major environmental challenge because tire materials are highly durable and resistant to natural degradation. Since tires are thermoset polymers, their composite compounds cannot be easily recovered through melting or conventional recycling processes (Hong et al., 2015). Consequently, large quantities of waste tires often accumulate in stockpiles, which can lead to severe environmental and public health issues. Such stockpiles are vulnerable to accidental or spontaneous fires, producing toxic gases and hazardous liquid pollutants that degrade air and groundwater quality. Due to these risks, many countries restrict or discourage tire disposal in landfills.

To address this issue, increasing attention has been directed toward the reuse of scrap tires in various industries, including petroleum, chemical, and civil engineering sectors. In civil engineering, waste tires are commonly processed into tire-derived aggregates (TDA) and utilized as lightweight fill material. However, the direct application of TDAs can be limited due to their compressible nature and potential exothermic reactions. Studies have shown that blending TDAs with sand can significantly reduce compressibility and minimize the occurrence of exothermic behavior, thereby improving their suitability for geotechnical applications (Pincus et al., 1994; Zornberg et al., 2004).

The engineering behavior of granular materials is strongly influenced by particle size. Previous studies have demonstrated that of Lade et al. (1998), Salgado (2000), Lade et al. (1998), and others, shown variations in particle size affect soil strength, liquefaction susceptibility, and overall dynamic response. As per ASTM D6270 (2004), crap tire derivatives used in civil engineering applications are generally classified as tire shreds (>50 mm), tire chips (12–50 mm), and tire crumbs (<12 mm). In addition, powdered tire particles of size less than 425 mm are also being increasingly explored for ground improvement applications. In the present study, powdered tire particles are used as TDA and mixed with sand in different proportions to evaluate their influence on dynamic soil behavior. This study aims to investigate the effect of powdered tire content on the liquefaction resistance and dynamic properties of sand–tire mixtures. The performance of mixtures containing varying percentages of powdered tires is evaluated in terms of excess pore water pressure generation, liquefaction resistance, shear modulus (), and damping ratio (). The behavior of these mixtures is also compared with that of clean sand to quantify the improvement achieved through tire inclusion.

2 Previous studies

There has been a growing interest in using tire materials in civil engineering since the 1990s due to research showing their potential for reuse (Ahmed, 1993). Various studies have focused on the use of waste tire derivatives in civil engineering applications (Bosscher et al., 1997; Foose et al., 1996; Pincus et al., 1994). Researchers such as Eyad and Ranzi Taha (1996), Tweedie (1998), Lee et al. (1999), and Shrestha et al. (2016) have studied tire materials as lightweight backfill materials; Edil et al. (Edil et al., 2004) used them as drainage materials; Hazarika et al. (2008) and Hazarika et al. (2010) (Hazarika et al., 2008; Hazarika et al., 2010) investigated their effectiveness for vibration mitigation; Bosscher et al. (1997) looked into their use for highway embankment; Foose et al. (1996), and Hazarika et al. (2010) examined their use for soil reinforcement; and Kaneko et al. (Kaneko et al., 2013) studied their use to counteract liquefaction. Despite the numerous studies in this area, most of the focus has been on material static behavior, with only a few studies reporting on cyclic behavior. For tire derivatives ranging from 2 to 4.76 mm in size, Feng and Sutter (2000) reported the shear modulus () as 1.18–2.8 MPa and the damping ratio () as 4.5%–6%. Additionally, their investigation found that the damping ratio was independent of Confining Pressure (CP). Hazarika et al. (2010) found that tire-derived materials with a maximum size of 1 mm do not produce significant excess pore pressure (EPP), indicating their ability to resist liquefaction. In comparison to Senetakis et al. (2012), tire-derived materials have damping 10 times greater than granular soil, even though they are 100 times less stiff. The study utilized resonant column tests on materials with average sizes ranging from 0.35 to 3 mm. The behavior of tire derivatives and their mixtures smaller than 25 mm was observed by Nakhaei et al. (2012) contrary to the usual behavior of granular soils, the damping ratio increases with increasing CP. As per reports, the and values vary from 1.28 to 196 MPa and 5.3%–48.3%, respectively. Ehsani et al. (2015) reported the and values for sand-tire derivative mixtures with a size less than 4.75 mm and 1 mm, falling in the range of 4–169 MPa and 0.9%–26%, respectively. Madhusudhan et al. (2017) conducted a study on the dynamic response of tire derivatives measuring less than 2 mm. The specified and values ranged from 1 to 2.25 MPa and 10%–11% respectively. Similarly, Mashiri et al. reported values ranging from 2.4 to 19.3 MPa after examining the behavior of tire derivatives measuring smaller than 22 mm. Additionally, Das and Bhowmik (2020) presented the dynamic characteristics of TCr with sizes varying from 1.18 to 2.36 mm and 0.6–1.18 mm. Finally, Moussa and Naggar (2021), studied tire derivatives smaller than 25.4 mm, discovering that values ranged from 0.245 to 2.91 MPa and values from 11% to 23.6%.According to research findings, the presence of rubber grains inside SRM affects how the mixtures deform (Afrazi et al., 2025).

Based on previous findings, it was observed that the liquefaction resistance of combinations of sand and tire chips (20–50 mm) generally increases with higher tire content up to 30%, before decreasing (Mashiri et al., 2015). Additionally, it was found that combinations with more than 30% tire chips are more likely to segregate (Mashiri, 2014). Segregation leads to the formation of a layer of sand at the bottom and a layer of tire chips at the top. It was also noted that mixtures with the tire chips layer at the top and the sand layer at the bottom had lower liquefaction strength compared to other mixtures, as indicated by Kaneko et al. (2013). This suggests that the segregation of the tire chips-sand mixture is responsible for the reduction in liquefaction resistance.

However, previous studies on the liquefaction resistance of sand mixed with 0.45–2 mm powdered tire have reported that liquefaction resistance increases with increasing tire content. It has also been observed that specimens containing only tire particles do not exhibit initial liquefaction. This behavior is mainly attributed to the highly compressible and elastic nature of tire particles, which allows significant deformation during cyclic loading. As a result, the development of excess pore water pressure is restricted, preventing the pore pressure from reaching levels required for liquefaction. In contrast, clean sand specimens show a rapid buildup of excess pore water pressure because sand particles are relatively rigid and incompressible. The dense particle contacts in sand restrict volumetric deformation under undrained cyclic loading, thereby promoting pore pressure generation and increasing susceptibility of liquefaction. Therefore, the inclusion of elastic tire particles within the sand matrix reduces pore pressure accumulation and enhances liquefaction resistance.

Furthermore, previous studies have reported that granulated or powdered tire–sand mixtures exhibit improved material uniformity and a lower tendency for segregation when compared to mixtures containing larger tire derivatives such as tire chips or tire shreds (Senthen Amuthan et al., 2018). Mixtures prepared using large-sized tire particles (such as tire chips or shreds) and sand are often prone to segregation under dynamic loading, which can increase the likelihood of liquefaction in the composite material.

The resistance to liquefaction of the mixes improves as the size of the tire particles increases, particularly when the mixtures with less tire are subjected to lower confining pressures (Li et al., 2016). However, it can be inferred that the mixture of tire chips (size 20–50 mm) has less liquefaction resistance than the mixture of granulated tire (size 0.425–2 mm) noted by Mashiri et al. This difference indicates the need for more research to fully understand how tire size affects the combinations.

Research findings indicate that the incorporation of tire powder into sand can reduce the rate of excess pore water pressure () generation during cyclic loading due to the high compressibility and energy dissipation characteristics of rubber particles. This behavior has been widely reported in previous studies on sand–rubber mixtures, where the inclusion of tire-derived materials alters the soil fabric and improves liquefaction resistance under undrained cyclic loading conditions (Bhattacharya et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2023). The gradual addition of tire particles does not significantly increase EPP. However, as the number of loading cycles increases, the axial strain of the mixture also increases due to the decreased stiffness (Li et al., 2016). As a result, it is possible that the mixture will not liquefy at first. However, if a specific double amplitude axial strain is reached (e.g., 5% as per Kramer (Kramer, 1996) for cyclic triaxial tests), there is a possibility of the sample liquefying and failing. Previous research has mainly focused on the initial liquefaction of the mixture (Mashiri et al., 2015). It is important to investigate the liquefaction resistance in the context of both initial liquefaction and failure by reaching a specific double amplitude axial strain.

Recent studies have increasingly focused on the use of recycled tire-derived materials for improving the cyclic and liquefaction resistance of sandy soils (Alielahi et al., 2025; Nikitas and Bhattacharya, 2023; Wu et al., 2023; Ansari et al., 2025) reported that the incorporation of tire-derived materials into sandy soils significantly alters the soil fabric, increases damping capacity, and reduces the rate of excess pore water pressure generation during cyclic loading conditions. Similar observations have been reported in other recent experimental investigations, where sand–rubber mixtures demonstrated enhanced liquefaction resistance compared to clean sand due to increased compressibility and improved energy dissipation characteristics.

Scrap tire derivatives such as shreds, chips, and crumb rubber have been widely investigated as sustainable geomaterials for improving the cyclic behavior of sandy soils. These studies primarily aimed to enhance liquefaction resistance by reducing excess pore water pressure generation and increasing energy dissipation due to the compressible nature of rubber (Ahmed, 1993; Pincus et al., 1994; Youwai and Bergado, 2003). Previous research has highlighted the significant influence of particle size and form on the performance of sand–rubber mixtures. Larger tire particles (shreds and chips) have been studied mainly for their reinforcing and drainage characteristics, but issues such as segregation and non-uniform behavior under cyclic loading have also been reported (Foose et al., 1996; Mashiri et al., 2015). In contrast, finer rubber particles provide better homogeneity and improved interaction with sand, leading to enhanced cyclic performance (Senetakis et al., 2012). Studies on fine rubber inclusions (0.45–2 mm) have shown that liquefaction resistance increases with rubber content, along with improved damping characteristics and reduced pore pressure buildup (Senetakis et al., 2012). However, most of these investigations have focused primarily on liquefaction resistance, with limited attention to detailed dynamic properties such as shear modulus () and damping ratio (). Furthermore, the behavior of sand mixed with ultra-fine powdered tire particles (<0.425 mm) under varying strain amplitudes and confining pressures remains largely unexplored. To address this gap, the present study investigates the undrained cyclic behavior of sand treated with powdered tire particles (<0.425 mm) using strain-controlled cyclic triaxial testing. The study focuses on evaluating liquefaction resistance and characterizing dynamic properties ( and ) under varying tire content, confining pressure, and strain amplitude.

3 Materials and laboratory testing of sand–tire chips mixes

3.1 Material characterization

The materials used for testing in this investigation are powdered tires derived from scrap and sand shown in Figure 1. The tire is passed through a 0.425 mm screen, classifying it as powdered tire according to ASTM D6270 (2004), The scrap tires used for the investigation are locally available and have been stripped of metal reinforcements prior to use. The specific gravity of the powdered tire is 1.09. In this study, sand from the Palar river is used. The properties of the sand are listed in Table 1. The particle-size distribution curve for the sand can be seen in Figure 2. To create consistent mixtures of sand and powdered tire, the two ingredients are thoroughly mixed in various weight proportions. In this research, six different proportions of tire powder (TP) ranging from 0% to 50% are being considered. The tire powder content is defined as the percentage replacement of sand by dry weight. A replacement approach was adopted to maintain consistent specimen density and void ratio across all samples, ensuring reliable evaluation of the influence of tire powder on cyclic behavior. The numerical value in each mix designation denotes the percentage of powdered tires by weight. For example, TP-0 refers to a sample consisting of pure sand with no added powdered tire.

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2

The tire powder (TP) used in this study is a commercially processed recycled rubber material with particle sizes predominantly passing through the 0.425 mm sieve. Since the material was supplied in a pre-graded form, a detailed particle size distribution curve was not available. Therefore, the characterization of TP is based on the reported sieve size limit and supplier specifications. Future studies may include a detailed particle size distribution analysis to further enhance the characterization of tire powder and its influence on soil behavior.

The minimum and maximum void ratios and specific gravity of the sand were determined in accordance with standard procedures (ASTM D4254-16, 2016) and included in Table 1. The shear strength parameters ( and ) were not evaluated in this study, as the experimental program focuses on cyclic undrained response. In addition, the relevant physical properties of the tire powder such as particle size range, specific gravity, and particle shape have been incorporated in Table 2.

3.2 Experimental program and methodology

3.2.1 Specimen preparation

The split mould used for sample creation is filled with a stretched tire membrane designed for soil with a diameter of 70 mm and a height of 140 mm. After placing a porous stone and filter paper, the mould is positioned on a pedestal, and the membrane is securely held in place by applying a vacuum pressure of approximately 15 kPa to the split mould. Subsequently, five layers of dried soil samples are carefully formed inside the mould, with the density increasing from the bottom to the top to ensure a uniform density of the sample. Each layer is compacted to a height of roughly 30 mm using a compaction rod with a diameter of 25 mm and a weight of 2.88 N (0.294 kg) without any drop height. Prior to ceasing the vacuum pressure, the sample is prepared, and a filter paper, a porous stone, and a top cap are appropriately applied. Two ‘O' rings are then positioned on the top cap and one on the bottom pedestal. Finally, after placing the submersible load cell, it is connected to the sample.

All specimens were prepared at a target relative density of = 35% (loose state) to represent liquefiable soil conditions (Seed and Idriss, 1970). The corresponding dry density was maintained constant for all specimens by controlling the mass of soil placed in the mould and the specimen volume. To ensure uniform density and minimize segregation, the sample was prepared in five equal layers, with each layer compacted to achieve the required dry density. The specimen preparation procedure was kept identical for all sand–tire powder mixtures to ensure repeatability and comparability of results (ASTM D4253-00, 1996).

3.2.2 Saturation

After specimen preparation, saturation was carried out using a conventional back-pressure saturation technique (Skempton, 1954). Initially, the specimen was flushed with de-aired water under a low hydraulic gradient to remove entrapped air and ensure complete inundation of the pore spaces (Ladd, 2018). Subsequently, saturation was achieved by gradually increasing the cell pressure and back pressure in equal increments while maintaining a constant effective confining pressure. This process was continued until the pore water pressure response stabilized. The degree of saturation was verified using Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (-value) (Skempton, 1954), and all specimens were considered fully saturated when a -value of at least 0.95 was achieved, which is widely accepted for cyclic triaxial testing (ASTM D5311/D5311).

The -value is determined using Equation 1 in accordance with ASTM D3999-91 (2003) and this procedure is conducted at various intervals. Each test sample achieved a -value of 0.96 or higher which is shown in Table 3.where is change in pore water pressure due to the change in chamber pressure; and is change in chamber pressure.

3.2.3 Consolidation

The chamber pressure is gradually increased while maintaining a constant backpressure using the drainage valve control. The pressure in the chamber is recorded at each step and held for a period of time until both the chamber pressure and back pressure stabilize. In this investigation, the experimental program involved compacting the samples under a CP () of 50 kPa.

3.2.4 Shearing

In each test conducted under both undrained and strain-controlled scenarios, a frequency range of 0.1–2 Hz was recommended by ASTM D3999 (ASTM D3999-91, 2003). However, it was determined that the ideal frequency for this investigation is 1 Hz. The axial deformation of all specimens follows a uniform sinusoidal pattern, corresponding to a shear strain rate of 0.5%. The number of cycles required to achieve a nearly constant shear modulus value is used to calculate the number of cycles () for each step. ASTM D3999 ensures that no PWP develops after each step. To minimize additional PWP, a small axial deformation is applied for 20 cycles after each step, as shown in Figure 3. It was found that this approach prevented PWP build-up in the first three stages, rendering 20 cycles unnecessary. None of the experiments conducted in this investigation resulted in EPP. Similar behavior has been noted by Hazarika et al. (2010) and Kaneko et al. (2013). This suggests that the TDA (Tire Derived Aggregate) strength will not be significantly impaired after an earthquake, indicating its potential to mitigate liquefaction.

FIGURE 3

The stress-strain plot obtained from the CTX test is used to calculate the shear modulus () and damping ratio () values. The hysteresis loop plot (Figure 3) of deviator stress and axial strain is used to obtain the secant modulus (). The values of and shear strain ( are then calculated from , Poisson’s ratio (), and axial strain () using Equations 2, 3, respectively. is also calculated from the stress-strain plot using Equation 4.

3.2.5 Consolidated undrained cyclic triaxial test

This method involves the measurement of the strength and stress-strain correlations of a cylindrical specimen of intact, reconstituted, or remolded saturated cohesionless soil. The specimens undergo isotropic consolidation and shearing under compression at a consistent rate of axial deformation without drainage. By measuring the axial load, axial deformation, and pore-water pressure, this test method allows for the computation of total and effective stresses as well as axial compression. A Heico microcomputer controlled electromagnetic vibration triaxial test system is utilized to carry out the consolidated undrained cyclic triaxial test. This system provides the required waveform (sinusoidal, square, triangle, and seismic waves) and frequency (0–10 Hz) and may also record the force, dynamic water pressure, and displacement produced during the vibration process.

The dynamic parameter characteristics test follows ASTM D3999-91 (2003), while the liquefaction test adheres to ASTM D5311 (2011). The cyclic triaxial test procedure includes specimen installation, saturation, and consolidation. After consolidation, the appropriate cyclic load and frequency are applied. In Figure 4, the liquefaction test uses a sinusoidal cyclic load with a 0.5% strain rate. The selection of loading frequency is an important factor in cyclic soil testing, as the soil response may vary with frequency. In the present study, a loading frequency of 1 Hz was adopted, as it falls within the commonly reported range of dominant earthquake excitation frequencies affecting soil deposits (typically 0.5–10 Hz) (Seed and Idriss, 1970; Kramer, 1996). This frequency is widely used in cyclic triaxial testing to simulate seismic loading conditions and to ensure undrained behavior by minimizing drainage during cyclic shearing (Sivadasan, 2021). Furthermore, a frequency of 1 Hz provides stable and repeatable loading control within the triaxial testing system, which is essential for obtaining reliable and consistent measurements of cyclic response.

FIGURE 4

The test is considered complete when the dynamic pore water pressure ratio (), which is the ratio of the dynamic pore water pressure to the confining pressure, reaches 1 (Ding et al., 2021). Strain-controlled cyclic loading was adopted in the present study to ensure stable and continuous control of deformation during testing. Compared to stress-controlled loading, strain-controlled tests provide better stability at large strain levels, where stress-controlled conditions may lead to rapid instability and premature failure (Kramer, 1996). This approach enables a consistent evaluation of stiffness degradation, strength reduction, and post-liquefaction behavior of sand and sand–tire powder mixtures over a wide range of deformation. The maximum strain amplitude was selected based on preliminary trial tests and established practices reported in the literature on cyclic behavior of sands and sand–rubber mixtures. The chosen strain level was sufficient to induce cyclic mobility and large deformations representative of liquefaction conditions, while maintaining test stability and ensuring reliable measurement of stress–strain response.

4 Results and discussion

Geotechnical engineers use the cyclic triaxial test as a crucial tool to evaluate the susceptibility of soil to liquefaction. Liquefaction is a condition in which saturated soil loses strength and behaves like a liquid during seismic activity. The test studies how soil particles respond to cyclic shear load by simulating these stresses. One important result of this study is the EPP ratio (), which measures the increase in EPP relative to the initial effective CP. A high EPP ratio, an important indicator of liquefaction, suggests a high probability of liquefaction occurring. The “number of cycles to liquefaction value” refers to the number of loading cycles () that a soil sample can endure before reaching a certain pore pressure ratio (often chosen as 0.9) at a given strain rate. Lower indicates reduced resistance to liquefaction. The test also shows how cyclic loading can cause deformation of the soil sample. By measuring cumulative stress with each cycle, the test can provide information about soil stiffness and its likelihood of significant liquefaction deformation

The researchers were able to establish the relationship between liquefaction capacity and cyclic loading based on and for various strain rates. The test allows for the observation of the soil sample behavior during cyclic loading. This involves identifying any changes in strength, stiffness, and potential for localized shear failure. The analysis of the data takes into consideration variables such as drainage conditions, CP, density, and soil type. This facilitates a better understanding of how these changes impact soil liquefaction susceptibility.

In the present study, TP 0% is used as the reference specimen (clean sand), while TP 25% is discussed in detail as a representative mixture because it showed significant improvement in liquefaction resistance while maintaining soil-like mechanical behavior. The responses of other mixtures (TP 15% – TP 50%) followed similar trends; therefore, only key results are highlighted to avoid repetitive discussion. Furthermore, the discussion is primarily presented for an effective confining pressure of 50 kPa, which represents shallow soil conditions where liquefaction is critical. The influence of higher confining pressures is beyond the scope of the present experimental program and is recommended for future investigations.

4.1 Excess pore water pressure ratio

In the assessment of sand and powder tires susceptibility to liquefaction, it is imperative to consider the EPP ratio (). Liquefaction of a saturated soil deposit ensues when cyclic loading results in a substantial accumulation of EPP (). An essential parameter for evaluating liquefaction risk is , denoting the ratio of EPP to the initial effective CP (). As approaches a value comparable to , the effective CP diminishes, and when the ratio approximates 1, it may precipitate liquefaction and a consequent reduction in shear strength.

Different combinations of tire powder (TP) at 0%, 15%, 25%, 35%, and 50% are subjected to one hundred loading cycles. Upon examination of the specimens in an undrained environment, it is observed that there is an increase in EPP accumulation with the (refer to Figure 4). The liquefaction behavior of the mixtures is indicated by the value. Post completion of 100 cycles, the value attained by each blend is compared. The values for each mixture, evaluated at CP 50 kPa with a strain rate of 0.5%, are illustrated in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5

The comparison in Figure 5 is limited to the first 100 loading cycles, as this range was sufficient to capture the critical pore pressure buildup and liquefaction initiation for most specimens tested. In several cases, liquefaction occurred well before 100 cycles, while for specimens with higher tire powder content, the response approached a stable trend within this range. Beyond 100 cycles, either negligible variation in was observed or the specimen had already reached failure conditions. Therefore, limiting the comparison to 100 cycles provides a consistent basis for evaluating the pore pressure development and liquefaction resistance of different mixtures.

As the varies for different combinations, Figure 5 demonstrates the change in the parameter called “”. The Figure shows a notable decrease in the value of “” as the proportion of tire powder in sand increases. A value between 0 and 1 indicates the liquefied state of pure sand. decreases to 0.8 when 15% tire powder is added to sand. When the percentage of tire powder is 25 and then increased to 35, the value of remains at 0.5. Subsequently, the value of drops to 0.4. When sand and tire powder are in equal proportions, becomes 0.2. Research findings indicate that mixing tire powder with sand can slow down the rate at which EPP () builds up during cyclic loading in triaxial testing. This is identified by a smaller value of compared to pure sand under identical loading conditions.

Soil liquefaction typically occurs after 20 cycles, which represents the liquefaction cycle value. The value of stands at 0.7 when 15% of powdered tire is introduced at cycle 20 and subsequently decreases to 0.5 with the addition of 25% of powdered tire. Furthermore, the value diminishes to 0.4 with the introduction of 35% powdered tire and further drops to 0.2 when 50% is added. This pattern suggests that the addition of powdered tire necessitates additional cycles to achieve liquefaction. Similarly, studies by (Senetakis et al., 2012) have reported that adding rubber particles reduces the rate of pore water pressure development, which in turn improves the liquefaction resistance of the soil. The findings of the present study match these observations, as the sand–tire mixtures showed a slower buildup of pore pressure and higher resistance to liquefaction when compared with clean sand.

The evolution of excess pore water pressure ratio () is first examined for an effective confining pressure of 50 kPa, as this condition represents shallow soil deposits where liquefaction susceptibility is generally higher due to lower overburden stress and reduced effective confinement (Seed et al., 1975). Under such conditions, the generation of excess pore water pressure is more pronounced, making it suitable for evaluating the influence of tire powder inclusion on liquefaction behavior.

Tire powder, being in compressed form, has the ability to absorb and change shape. When soil is subjected to earthquakes or other vibrations, some of the energy is absorbed by the tire particles. This absorption reduces the pressure build-up within the soil, a key factor in high pore water pressure. The uneven size of tire powder particles creates small gaps in the soil matrix, which act as drainage channels, allowing EPP to dissipate rapidly. Imagine dirt particles as closely spaced pebbles. The tiny pockets formed by the tire powder between them facilitate the passage of water. Small tire fragments act as miniature reinforcements in the soil, filling in the gaps between soil particles and creating a more compact structure. Tire powder can slightly increase the overall stiffness of the soil mix, making it less prone to accumulating pore pressure and better able to withstand forces during an earthquake (Eyad and Ranzi Taha, 1996; Tweedie, 1998).

The mixture of sand and tire powder shows increased resistance to liquefaction when the ratio of the undrained shear strength to the effective vertical stress () is lower compared to pure sand. Engineers can develop a liquefaction resistance curve for a specific combination by analyzing () data obtained from cyclic triaxial tests conducted at various stress levels. The () of the mixture is significantly influenced by the quantity of tire powder, and there may be an optimal range where the benefits are maximized. Additionally, the type and size of tire particles are two parameters that can impact the behavior of (). Compared to pure sand, a sand-tire powder mixture requires a greater under the same loading conditions to reach liquefaction due to the decreased pore pressure in the mixture. Consequently, owing to its high cyclic resistance, the mixture is less susceptible to liquefaction during seismic events or other cyclic loading conditions.

4.2 Typical results of cyclic triaxial testing

Figures 6–8 illustrates the characteristic behavior of the strain-controlled CTX test. It is evident that the responses of all mixtures exhibit similarity.

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 8

The stress–strain comparison is presented for TP 0% (clean sand) and TP 25% to provide a clear and representative assessment of the effect of tire powder inclusion. TP 0% is used as the reference material, while TP 25% was selected as a representative mixture due to its significant improvement in liquefaction resistance while maintaining soil-like behavior (Anastasiadis et al., 2012; Senetakis et al., 2012). The responses of other mixtures (TP 10%–TP 50%) showed similar trends and are therefore not included to avoid figure overcrowding. The comparison is limited to an effective confining pressure of 50 kPa, as it represents shallow soil conditions where liquefaction susceptibility is more pronounced.

The axis scales in Figure 6 are not kept identical for all plots because While identical axis scales can aid direct comparison, the responses of different tire powder mixtures show a wide variation in magnitude. Using uniform axis limits would compress several curves and obscure important behavioral trends, particularly for specimens with lower strain and pore pressure development. Therefore, individual axis scales were adopted to ensure clear visualization of the cyclic response, consistent with common practice in geotechnical experimental studies (Ishihara, 1996; Seed et al., 1975).

The analysis of deviatoric stress variation with axial strain in a cyclic triaxial test provides valuable insight into the behavior and resistance to liquefaction of soil. In the context of pure sand, deviator stress typically exhibits elastic behavior during initial loading cycles, increasing with rising axial strain, indicating particle compaction and reorganization under load. Each cycle involves energy dissipation, evident from the hysteresis loop in the stress-strain curve. Once deviatoric stress surpasses 80 kPa, there is a notable increase in axial strain exceeding 0.6%, followed by a decrease in both stress and strain, reaching a minimum value. As the increases, the soil densifies and weakens. Undrained cyclic loading of saturated sand causes a reduction in intergranular forces due to increased pore water pressure (PWP), leading to diminished soil stiffness and effective stress. When examining the relationship between deviatoric stress and axial strain for a sand-tire powder mixture, the curve presented in Figure 6b reveals that the tire powder decreases the shear modulus of the mixture, potentially resulting in a lower peak deviatoric stress (60 kPa) compared to pure sand during the initial loading cycle and a less steep initial slope of the stress-strain curve.

The cyclic compression and extension responses are often expected to be comparable, the observed asymmetry in tire powder–sand mixtures is attributed to the viscoelastic and highly compressible nature of rubber particles. During compression, greater particle deformation and rearrangement lead to increased energy dissipation and stiffness degradation, resulting in a lower deviatoric stress response. In contrast, partial elastic recovery during extension produces a relatively higher stress response. Additionally, the inclusion of tire powder modifies particle contact behavior and may induce fabric anisotropy, while progressive pore water pressure buildup under undrained conditions further contributes to stress–strain asymmetry. Similar behavior has been reported in previous studies on sand–rubber mixtures (Carraro et al., 2005; Feng and Sutter, 2000).

The graph in Figure 7 demonstrates the change in deviatoric stress over time. Part (a) of Figure 7 illustrates the variation in pure sand. The deviatoric stress decreases exponentially as the number of cycles increases. This can be attributed to the deformation of the soil sample. Initially, the deviatoric stress reaches 80 kPa and then decreases, stabilizing up to the 40th cycle. An increase in PWP can reduce the effective shear strength of the soil, leading to a decrease in deviatoric stress. As the increases, the deviatoric stress drops to a minimum value, indicating liquefaction of the soil. Subsequent cycles show a modest decline or remain essentially steady after an initial high value. This initial peak reflects the original stiffness and strength of the soil. As the increases, deviatoric stress gradually diminishes for a specific applied stress level, indicating reduced soil strength and stiffness. The rate of deviator stress reduction is a crucial indicator in assessing liquefaction resistance. A rapid decline indicates higher vulnerability to liquefaction and a quicker loss of strength. The needed to produce a noticeable reduction in deviator stress is an important characteristic and is often expressed as a percentage drop from the peak. Part (b) of Figure 7 illustrates the variation for a sand tire powder mixture.

The data presented in Figure 8 depicts the variation in value with increasing cycles. It is evident that the value exhibits an upward trend with cycles, illustrating the progressive buildup of EPP with each cycle. Notably, the accumulation of EPP is more pronounced in the initial cycles compared to the subsequent ones. Furthermore, the findings of a specimen that underwent liquefaction after approximately 40 cycles are depicted in Figure 8a. The value surged to over 0.9 after the initial 10 to 20 cycles, following which liquefaction ensued, resulting in a discernible deceleration in the production of EPP. Additionally, Figure 8b showcases the evaluation of a TP-25 sample under conditions akin to those presented in Figure 8a. Despite a slower generation of compared to the TP-0 sample, the behavior of the TP-25 samples exhibits similarity. This consistent behavior is observed across all mixtures.

5 Dynamic behavior of pure sand and sand tire powder mixture

The study of soil dynamics, especially the behavior of mixtures containing sand and tire powder, is greatly enhanced through the use of cyclic triaxial testing. Research has indicated that the incorporation of tire powder with sand is an effective method for mitigating liquefaction. An examination of the dynamic properties of the mixture, integral to understanding its resistance to liquefaction, can be achieved through cyclic triaxial testing. Of paramount importance among these dynamic properties is the shear modulus (), which delineates the stiffness of the material. A higher value signifies a combination that is more rigid and better able to withstand pore pressure accumulation and distortion under cyclic loading. The damping ratio () serves as an indicator of the material capacity to dissipate energy. A higher value corresponds to a reduced potential for pore pressure build-up and liquefaction, thereby enhancing energy absorption.

To illustrate the calculation procedure, a representative hysteresis loop obtained from a typical specimen (Figure 3) is considered. The shear modulus () was determined using the secant modulus approach (Equation 5), defined as the ratio of peak-to-peak shear stress to peak-to-peak shear strain (Hardin and Drnevich, 1972), i.e.,where is the difference between the maximum and minimum shear stress in a loading cycle, and is the corresponding shear strain range.

The damping ratio () was evaluated based on the energy dissipation per cycle using the area enclosed within the hysteresis loop () and the elastic strain energy () (Equation 6), expressed as (Kramer, 1996).where represents the area of the triangle formed by the secant modulus line connecting the extreme points of the hysteresis loop. This procedure was consistently applied to all specimens to determine the shear modulus and damping ratio at selected loading cycles.

5.1 Effect of tire content on damping ratio

The damping ratio is influenced by shear strain, as illustrated in Figure 9 for a shear strain of 0.5%, an effective stress of 50 kPa, and a frequency of 1 Hz. Research findings suggest a correlation between the and an increase in tire powder content. In the absence of tire content, the pure sand content ranges from 2.5% to 0.2%, with shear strain ranging from −0.24% to −0.19%, resulting in a low damping ratio. When the tire content is 15% and the shear strain ranges from −0.24% to −0.16%, the increases to 2.7%. Similarly, with a tire composition of 25% and shear strain ranging from −0.24% to −0.16%, the approaches 5%. The exhibits comparable variance when the tire content is 35%, and it increases to between 12% and 18% with 50% of tires in the soil. Furthermore, empirical observations indicate a positive association between the , tire weight, and shear strain.

FIGURE 9

The stress–strain hysteresis loop for two representative small and high shear strain amplitudes are depicted in Figures 10a,b, with the purpose of further examining the damping behavior of the mixes. It is important to acknowledge the distinctions between the hysteresis loop of pure sand and the sand-powdered tire mixture in terms of the enclosed area, which is directly linked to the (Sarajpoor et al., 2020).

FIGURE 10

In this investigation, the specimen designated as TP 0% corresponds to clean sand and serves as the baseline reference material for evaluating the influence of Tire Powder (TP) inclusion. The TP 25% mixture is emphasized in the stress–strain response analysis because it demonstrates a notable enhancement in cyclic resistance, evidenced by improved hysteretic behavior and reduced strain accumulation under repeated loading, while still preserving the fundamental mechanical characteristics of granular soil. This indicates an optimal balance between energy dissipation and structural integrity without excessive alteration of soil-like behavior.

Conversely, the TP 35% mixture is selected for the evaluation of dynamic parameters due to its superior performance in terms of small-strain shear modulus () and damping ratio (). The increased TP content contributes to higher energy absorption capacity and improved attenuation of dynamic loads, resulting in enhanced damping characteristics alongside a relatively stable modulus response. Consequently, different TP proportions are highlighted based on the specific mechanical response being examined, ensuring a parameter-focused assessment of material performance under cyclic and dynamic loading conditions.

The damping in any composite material is primarily influenced by two main factors: the deformations of the constituent particles and the friction between them. Notably, the friction between particles is more pronounced in tire powder due to its lower modulus. While the deformable tire powder particles are expected to dissipate energy through deformation, the rigid sand particles are not anticipated to undergo significant deformation (Feng and Sutter, 2000). Consequently, the addition of tire powder results in higher values for the mixes. Furthermore, to maintain equivalent strain levels, the inclusion of deformable tire powder necessitates less deviator stress, leading to the reduction of the stress-strain loop area. The maximum energy stored in the mixes also influences the damping characteristics, with the addition of tire powder causing a significant decrease in the maximum energy stored. Consequently, an increase in the tire powder component of the mixture leads to a higher damping ratio. Moreover, the presence of high amounts of tire powder alters the behavior of particle interactions within the mixes, forming sand-tire powder interactions when tire powder is added to sand. Additionally, mixtures containing higher amounts of tire powder may also exhibit (Amanta and Dasaka, 2023; Youwai and Bergado, 2003) have shown that adding rubber particles to granular soils can greatly improve their damping behavior because rubber helps absorb and dissipate more energy during loading. The results of the present study support this observation, as the sand–rubber mixture exhibited a better hysteresis response and higher energy dissipation when subjected to cyclic loading.

5.2 Effect of tire content on shear modulus

The graph in Figure 11 illustrates how the changes with shear strain for a tire composition of 0.5%, with a CP () of 50 kPa, and a frequency () of 1 Hz. It shows that as the tire content increases; the shear modulus decreases. Specifically, with 0% tire content, the shear strain ranges from −0.24% to −0.19% and the ranges from 26 to 30 MPa. When the tire content increases to 15%, the drops to 24 MPa. As the tire composition further increases to 25%, the decreases from 22 to 18 MPa. With 35% tire content, the ranges from 18 MPa to 16 MPa, and with 50% tire content, it ranges from 16 MPa to 14 MPa. The significantly impacts the stiffness and deformation resistance of sand-tire powder mixes. Sand is inherently more rigid than tire powder, and when mixed, the tire powder creates weak zones, reducing the overall of the material and making it less stiff and more flexible. However, applying pressure to increase the number of contact sites between the sand particles in the mixture can partly compensate for this reduction. Additionally, adding more tire powder to the mixture further reduces the .

FIGURE 11

5.3 Effect of strain rate

In Figure 12, the impact of shear strain rate on the dynamic properties of the optimal mix is illustrated. According to the current literature review, a 35% tire mixture is favored. Research indicates that combinations with more than 30% tire derivatives are prone to separation, resulting in a layer of tire derivatives on top and a layer of sand on the bottom. Furthermore, it has been found that a sample with this layering had lower liquefaction strength. The separation of the tire derivatives and sand is believed to be the cause of the reduced liquefaction resistance. Figure 12a illustrates how the changes with increasing shear strain. For the 35% tire powder mix, the increases with the shear strain rate, measuring about 4.5% at a 0.7% strain rate, 3.8% at a 0.6% strain rate, and approximately 3.6% at a 0.5% strain rate. The fluctuation of with shear strain is depicted in Figure 12b, indicating that the decreases as the strain rate increases. At a 0.5% strain rate, the measures 1.65 MPa, 1.75 MPa at a 0.6% strain rate, and 1.85 MPa at a 0.7% strain rate. For the TP-35 mix, the value of dropped by almost 67% as the strain amplitude increased from 0.5% to 0.7%, while the damping value increased by almost 64%. This increase in damping may be attributed to particle slippage and rearrangement caused by higher strain values.

FIGURE 12

5.4 Effect of confinement on sand -tire powder mixture

Figure 13 illustrates how confining pressure affects the dynamic properties of the optimum mixture. In Figure 13a, the decreases as the CP increases for the optimum 35% powder tire. At 50 kPa and 100 kPa CP, the is 6%, and at 200 kPa, it is about 4.8%. In Figure 13b, the increases with CP. At 50 kPa, the is 2.8 MPa; at 100 kPa, it is 2.2 MPa; and at 200 kPa, it is 1.8 MPa. The dynamic characteristics of the mixture are significantly affected by the CP. Figures 13a,b demonstrate this influence. It is observed that the increases, and the decreases as the CP increases. When the CP increases from 50 to 200 kPa, the of TP-35, the ideal combination, increases by almost 62%. The drops by approximately 24% for the optimum mix. Higher CP results in a stronger particle matrix due to increased interparticle interactions. This makes the sample stiffer, leading to an increase in the as the CP increases. Additionally, an increase in CP makes the stiffness more resistant to deformation and energy loss, ultimately reducing the .

FIGURE 13

6 Applicability of the proposed methods

The findings of this study demonstrate the potential applicability of using tire powder as a sustainable additive for improving the cyclic response and liquefaction resistance of sandy soils. The observed reduction in excess pore water pressure generation and enhanced cyclic stability suggest that sand–tire powder mixtures can be effectively considered for ground improvement applications in liquefaction-prone regions.

The proposed method is particularly relevant for loose to medium-dense sandy deposits subjected to cyclic loading conditions, such as earthquake-induced shaking. The inclusion of tire powder alters the soil fabric by introducing highly compressible and energy-dissipating particles, which helps in reducing contractive behavior during cyclic loading.

However, it is noted that the present study is based on controlled laboratory cyclic triaxial testing. Field-scale implementation would require further investigation considering factors such as compaction methods, long-term durability, environmental conditions, and large-scale heterogeneity.

Despite these limitations, the study provides a strong experimental basis for the potential use of recycled tire materials in sustainable ground improvement practices, aligning with circular economy and waste recycling initiatives in geotechnical engineering.

7 Conclusion

8 Limitation, practical implications and future scope of present study

The study limitations include potential discrepancies between test frequencies and actual earthquake ground motions, variations in tire powder qualities, challenges in obtaining consistent test results due to diversity, and difficulties in accurately replicating tire powder’s characteristics in test samples, which could impact the accuracy of the findings.

The inclusion of waste rubber tire particles in Palar sand significantly reduces liquefaction susceptibility by enhancing energy dissipation and limiting excess pore water pressure generation under cyclic loading. This offers a cost-effective and sustainable ground improvement technique for seismic-prone regions. The approach is particularly useful for foundations, embankments, and coastal infrastructure. Additionally, it promotes reuse of waste materials, supporting environmentally responsible geotechnical practices.

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