Abstract
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films have emerged as key materials for enhancing the performance, reliability, and durability of microsystems and microdevices. This perspective article presents an analysis of the scientific and technological evolution of DLC from a conventional protective coating to a multifunctional platform material for microsystems and microdevices. Recent advances in tailoring the mechanical, electrical, chemical, and surface properties of DLC have been discussed, highlighting its potential to mitigate friction, adhesion, and wear in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), while enabling new functionalities in microsensors, biomedical devices, and microelectronic platforms. Despite significant progress, several challenges continue to hinder broader technological adoption, including residual stress management, low-temperature deposition compatible with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) processes, large-area scalability, and long-term reliability under demanding operating conditions. Future developments are expected to rely on engineered DLC architectures, such as doped, multilayer, and nanostructured films, combined with advanced surface functionalization and intelligent process optimization to meet application-specific requirements. Furthermore, the need for standardized integration strategies that bridge the gap between laboratory-scale research and industrial manufacturing is emphasized.
1 Introduction
The continuous miniaturization of electronic systems has driven remarkable advances in microsystems and microdevices, enabling applications ranging from consumer electronics and industrial automation to biomedical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and aerospace technologies (). As device dimensions shrink and functional complexity increases, surface and interface engineering have become a critical factor in ensuring long-term reliability, mechanical durability, and stable performance (; ). Thin-film coatings are now recognized not merely as protective layers but as functional materials capable of enhancing tribological, electrical, optical, chemical, and biological properties (). Among the wide variety of coating materials investigated over the past decades, diamond-like carbon (DLC) has emerged as one of the most versatile and technologically relevant ().
DLC comprises a family of amorphous carbon materials characterized by different ratios of sp2 and sp3 hybridized bonds, often containing hydrogen or additional dopants. This structural versatility allows the tailoring of key properties such as hardness, elastic modulus, friction coefficient, electrical conductivity, optical transparency, chemical inertness, and biocompatibility (; Peng et al., 2022). Consequently, DLC coatings have found widespread applications in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidic platforms, biosensors, optical components, implantable medical devices, and precision mechanical systems, where low wear, reduced stiction, and chemical stability are essential.
Despite these established applications, the technological view in which microsystems are being developed has changed considerably. Emerging fields such as flexible and wearable electronics, soft robotics, lab-on-a-chip devices, quantum technologies, intelligent manufacturing, and the Internet of Things (IoT) impose new functional requirements that extend beyond the conventional role of DLC as a protective coating (; Murugadoss et al., 2026). Future microdevices will increasingly demand multifunctional materials such as DLC capable of combining mechanical robustness with electrical functionality, biological compatibility, optical performance, and sustainable manufacturing.
At the same time, significant scientific and technological challenges remain. The precise control of residual stress, adhesion to diverse substrates, low-temperature deposition compatible with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technologies, large-area uniformity, scalable manufacturing, and the integration of DLC with emerging materials continue to limit broader industrial adoption (Murugadoss et al., 2026). Furthermore, recent advances in artificial intelligence-assisted materials discovery, digital manufacturing, and nanostructured surface engineering are opening opportunities to accelerate the design and optimization of next-generation DLC coatings.
The evolution of DLC for microsystems cannot be understood solely by cataloging new applications or deposition techniques. The field is undergoing a broader transition in which DLC is evolving from a protective coating into an engineered multifunctional material whose performance depends on the interplay between atomic structure, deposition processes, interface engineering, device architecture, and application specific requirements (Nagappan et al., 2025). This evolution raises fundamental questions regarding which material strategies are most promising, what technological barriers remain unresolved, and which research directions are likely to have the greatest impact on future microsystems.
This article does not seek to review the extensive DLC literature. Instead, it synthesizes recent advances into a progressive structure that connects materials design, processing strategies, device integration, and emerging applications while identifying the scientific and technological priorities that are expected to shape future developments in DLC based microsystems. Detailed discussions of electrical transport mechanisms, optical properties, and DLC patterning strategies are beyond the scope of this perspective article, although these aspects are recognized as important for specific microelectronic, sensing, and photonic applications.
2 Diamond-like carbon materials: classification and structure–property relationships
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) is not a single material but rather a broad family of metastable amorphous carbon coatings characterized by different combinations of carbon hybridization states, hydrogen content, dopants, and microstructural organization (Robertson, 2002; Ohtake et al., 2021). The term DLC encompasses materials with distinct mechanical, electrical, optical, tribological, and biological properties. Treating DLC as a homogeneous material can lead to oversimplified conclusions, particularly when comparing studies employing different deposition methods, processing conditions, and device applications.
The properties of DLC coatings are primarily governed by the relative fractions of sp2 and sp3 carbon bonds. Carbon atoms with sp3 hybridization form tetrahedral bonds similar to those in diamond, resulting in high hardness, high elastic modulus, excellent wear resistance, and wide electronic bandgap (Robertson, 2002). In contrast, sp2 hybridization produces graphitic structures with delocalized π electrons, leading to higher electrical conductivity, lower hardness, and different optical and tribological characteristics (Theye and Paret, 2002). Since most DLC films contain mixtures of sp2 and sp3 bonding, their functional properties can be tailored by controlling deposition parameters and film composition. Figure 1 highlights the diversity of DLC materials and illustrates how variations in composition and structure influence their mechanical, electrical, tribological, optical, and biological properties, supporting application-specific material selection for microsystems and microdevices. The structure-property relationships shown are qualitative and are intended to illustrate general trends rather than quantitative values or strict boundaries among DLC families.
FIGURE 1
Hydrogen incorporation represents another fundamental parameter controlling DLC performance (). Hydrogenated DLC films generally exhibit lower residual stress, reduced friction coefficients, improved chemical stability, and smoother surfaces compared with hydrogen-free coatings. However, excessive hydrogen incorporation may reduce hardness, thermal stability, and wear resistance. The optimum hydrogen concentration therefore depends on the intended application and operating environment, particularly for MEMS devices requiring long-term mechanical reliability.
Based on composition and bonding configuration, DLC materials can be broadly classified into hydrogen-free, hydrogenated, doped, and advanced engineered architectures (Figure 1). Hydrogen-free amorphous carbon (a-C) typically contains relatively high sp2 content, providing moderate hardness together with improved electrical conductivity. Tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C), in contrast, exhibits a significantly higher fraction of sp3 bonds, resulting in exceptional hardness, low wear rates, and superior chemical resistance, although at the expense of higher intrinsic residual stress (Murugadoss et al., 2026).
Hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H) remains one of the most widely investigated DLC families because it combines relatively low residual stress with excellent tribological behavior and compatibility with low-temperature deposition processes such as plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (Rajak et al., 2021). Hydrogenated tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C:H) provides an intermediate balance between hardness and stress while maintaining favorable tribological performance.
Beyond these conventional families, numerous doped DLC systems have been developed to tailor specific functional properties (Zhang et al., 2026). Silicon incorporation can improve oxidation resistance, thermal stability, and adhesion while reducing internal stress (). Nitrogen doping is frequently employed to modify electrical conductivity and electronic transport properties, whereas fluorine incorporation reduces surface energy and enhances hydrophobicity (Nasieka et al., 2026). Metallic dopants, including tungsten, titanium, chromium, and silver, have also been investigated to improve conductivity, tribological behavior, catalytic activity, or antibacterial performance depending on the target application ().
Recent research has expanded the concept of DLC beyond homogeneous coatings toward more sophisticated architectures. Nanocomposite DLC films incorporate ceramic or metallic nanoparticles to simultaneously improve mechanical strength, toughness, and multifunctionality (). Multilayer coatings alternate layers with different compositions to reduce residual stress and improve crack resistance, whereas graded DLC structures gradually modify composition or bonding through the film thickness, minimizing abrupt interface transitions and enhancing adhesion ().
These different DLC families exhibit markedly different combinations of hardness, residual stress, electrical conductivity, optical transparency, friction coefficient, chemical stability, and biological response (Robertson, 2002). So, selecting an appropriate DLC architecture requires balancing competing material properties rather than maximizing a single performance parameter. For example, increasing the sp3 fraction generally enhances hardness and wear resistance but also increases intrinsic residual stress and may complicate film integration. Conversely, increasing the sp2 fraction improves electrical conductivity but may reduce mechanical performance. Similar trade-offs are observed when incorporating hydrogen or chemical dopants.
For microsystems and MEMS applications, these structure–property relationships are particularly important because device performance depends not only on the intrinsic characteristics of the coating but also on its compatibility with microfabrication processes, substrate materials, packaging technologies, and operating conditions. Understanding the diversity of DLC families therefore provides the foundation for rational material selection and device design. Rather than considering DLC as a single coating material, future developments should adopt a materials-by-design approach in which bonding configuration, composition, deposition method, and device requirements are optimized simultaneously to achieve the desired combination of mechanical, electrical, chemical, and biological functionalities.
3 Why DLC matters in the next-generation of microsystems?
The rapid evolution of microsystems is reshaping the requirements imposed on engineering materials (). New microdevices are expected to operate in increasingly demanding environments while simultaneously becoming smaller, lighter, more reliable, and multifunctional. Applications such as wearable healthcare devices, autonomous sensors, implantable medical systems, intelligent manufacturing, space exploration, and distributed Internet of Things (IoT) networks require materials capable of performing multiple functions beyond conventional structural support. In this context, diamond-like carbon (DLC) is uniquely positioned to address several of these emerging challenges (Ramaswamy et al., 2019; Virganavičius et al., 2016).
One of the greatest advantages of DLC lies in its exceptional combination of mechanical, chemical, and functional properties (). Its high hardness and excellent wear resistance significantly improve the durability of moving microcomponents, particularly in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), where friction and mechanical degradation remain major reliability concerns (Usman et al., 2025). At the microscale, where surface forces dominate over inertial forces, the low coefficient of friction exhibited by many DLC coatings plays a crucial role in minimizing stiction, reducing energy losses, and extending device lifetime ().
Equally important is the outstanding chemical stability of DLC. Many next-generation microsystems are designed to operate under aggressive environmental conditions, including corrosive media, biological fluids, high humidity, and extreme temperatures (). The chemical inertness of DLC provides effective protection against corrosion, oxidation, and surface degradation, ensuring stable operation over prolonged periods (Ohgoe et al., 2012). This characteristic is particularly valuable for biomedical implants, microfluidic systems, and environmental sensors, where long-term reliability is essential.
Another key strength of DLC is its remarkable versatility. Through careful control of deposition parameters, hydrogen content, and elemental doping, its mechanical, electrical, optical, and surface properties can be tailored for specific applications (). Conductive DLC films can be employed in electrochemical sensing, while highly transparent coatings are attractive for optical microsystems (Nakao et al., 2017). Surface functionalization further enables improved biocompatibility, protein immobilization, and selective molecular interactions, expanding the role of DLC in biosensing and lab-on-a-chip technologies (Ohgoe et al., 2012; ).
Beyond its intrinsic material properties, DLC is increasingly relevant because it can support the transition toward multifunctional microsystems. Instead of serving only as a protective coating, DLC films may simultaneously provide tribological protection, electrical conductivity, optical functionality, antimicrobial activity, and sensing capabilities. Such multifunctionality aligns with the growing demand for compact, highly integrated devices in which a single material contributes to multiple system-level functions.
The relevance of DLC is also reinforced by recent advances in thin-film deposition technologies. Low-temperature plasma processes, high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS), filtered cathodic vacuum arc, and hybrid deposition techniques are improving film quality while enhancing compatibility with temperature-sensitive substrates and complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) manufacturing (; ). These developments are expected to facilitate the incorporation of DLC into flexible electronics, heterogeneous integration platforms, and high-volume microfabrication processes. Table 1 summarizes how DLC films can address the requirements of next-generation microsystems.
TABLE 1
| Future requirement | Why it matters | DLC contribution | Remaining challenges |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low friction | Moving MEMS components | Excellent tribological behavior | Long-term stability |
| Wear resistance | Device lifetime | High hardness | Residual stress |
| Chemical stability | Harsh environments | Corrosion resistance | Functionalization durability |
| Biocompatibility | Implantable devices | Low cytotoxicity | Long-term in vivo validation |
| Electrical functionality | Smart sensors | Tunable conductivity by doping | Process control |
| Flexible integration | Wearable electronics | Low-temperature deposition | Adhesion to polymers |
| Multifunctionality | Compact microsystems | Simultaneous mechanical, electrical and biological functions | Complex material design |
| Sustainable manufacturing | Green electronics | Potential low-energy processing | Industrial scalability |
How diamond-like carbon films address the requirements of next-generation microsystems.
Although DLC has attracted considerable attention for microsystem applications, it should not be regarded as a universal replacement for other functional thin-film materials (). Instead, its advantages become more evident when compared with alternative coatings used in specific applications. Silicon carbide (SiC) offers excellent thermal stability and high-temperature operation, making it particularly suitable for harsh-environment MEMS, whereas silicon nitride (Si3N4) and alumina (Al2O3) provide outstanding dielectric properties and chemical stability. Titanium nitride (TiN) is widely employed as a hard conductive coating with excellent wear resistance, while titanium dioxide (TiO2) is preferred for photocatalytic and bioactive applications (). Carbon-based materials such as graphene and exhibit exceptional electrical conductivity and flexibility, although their tribological performance and long-term mechanical durability differ significantly from those of DLC. Polymeric coatings, including parylene and fluoropolymers, offer excellent conformality, flexibility, and chemical resistance but generally possess lower hardness and wear resistance. Similarly, self-assembled monolayers provide molecular-scale surface functionalization and friction reduction but lack the mechanical robustness required for demanding tribological applications. Consequently, the selection of thin film material should be guided by application-specific performance requirements rather than by individual material properties. In this context, DLC occupies a unique position by simultaneously combining high hardness, low friction, chemical inertness, tunable electrical properties, optical transparency, and excellent biocompatibility within a single coating platform, although these advantages are often accompanied by challenges related to residual stress, adhesion, and process optimization.
In this context, the importance of DLC will depend not only on preserving its well-established advantages but also on expanding its functionality through materials engineering and intelligent manufacturing. Combining DLC with nanostructured architecture, two-dimensional materials, advanced surface patterning, and artificial intelligence-assisted process optimization may unlock entirely new application domains (Murugadoss et al., 2026). As microsystems become increasingly interconnected, autonomous, and application-specific, DLC is poised to evolve from a high-performance coating into a key enabling material for the next-generation of smart microdevices.
4 Emerging DLC deposition technologies and characterization
The future impact of diamond-like carbon (DLC) films in microsystems and microdevices will depend not only on advances in material design but also on the development of deposition technologies capable of producing high-quality coatings with precise control over composition, structure, and functional properties (; Zia and Birkett, 2021). With the continued miniaturization of devices, the integration requirements become more rigid and conventional deposition approaches must evolve to meet the demands of next-generation microelectronics devices ().
Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) remains the most widely adopted technique for DLC synthesis because of its relatively low processing temperature, good film uniformity, and compatibility with complex three-dimensional geometries (). Recent developments in plasma diagnostics and process control have enabled improved regulation of the sp2/sp3 bonding ratio, hydrogen incorporation, and residual stress, allowing the deposition of films tailored for specific microsystem applications.
Physical vapor deposition (PVD)-based methods, including magnetron sputtering and filtered cathodic vacuum arc (FCVA), have also gained considerable attention (Zhang et al., 2025; ). High-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) offers enhanced plasma ionization and improved control over film density, adhesion, and microstructure (). These characteristics are especially attractive for MEMS devices, where coating integrity and interface quality strongly influence long-term reliability. Table 2 summarizes advantages, limitations and devices applications of the main DLC deposition techniques. The values and characteristics presented are representative trends reported for DLC deposition technologies and may vary considerably depending on precursor chemistry, plasma conditions, substrate bias, equipment configuration, and target DLC composition.
TABLE 2
| Deposition technique | PECVD | Magnetron Sputtering (PVD) | HiPIMS | Filtered Cathodic Vacuum Arc (FCVA) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon Source | Hydrocarbon gases (CH4, C2H2, etc.) | Graphite target | Graphite target | Graphite cathode |
| Hydrogen Content | High | Low | Low | None |
| Deposition Temperature Range | Room temperature to ∼300 °C | Room temperature to ∼400 °C | Room temperature to ∼350 °C | Room temperature to ∼200 °C |
| Film Quality | Good | Good | Very high | Excellent (ta-C) |
| Residual Stress | Moderate to low | Low to moderate | Moderate | High |
| Adhesion | Good | Good | Excellent | Good with interlayers |
| Conformality | Excellent | Moderate | Good | Moderate |
| CMOS Compatibility | Excellent, especially below 200 °C | Good | Good | Moderate |
| Advantages | Low-temperature deposition, good uniformity, suitable for complex | Hydrogen-free films, good thickness control, industrial scalability | High plasma density, dense films, improved adhesion, better microstructure control | Very high sp3 fraction, extremely hard films, excellent tribological performance |
| Limitations | Lower sp3 fraction, hydrogen incorporation may reduce hardness and thermal stability | Lower sp3 content than ta-C, limited conformality on high-aspect-ratio structures | Lower deposition rate, more complex power supply, higher equipment cost | High intrinsic residual stress, expensive equipment, limited large-area scalability |
| Main Applications | MEMS, BioMEMS, flexible electronics, microfluidics | Protective coatings, sensors, microelectronic components | High-performance MEMS, wear-resistant microdevices, advanced coatings | High-wear MEMS, biomedical devices, tribological coatings |
Comparison of main deposition techniques for DLC films in MEMS and microdevices.
One of the most important challenges for future deposition technologies is achieving high-performance DLC coatings at temperatures compatible with complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) processing and flexible polymer substrates (). Low-temperature deposition processes are expected to play a central role in enabling the integration of DLC with flexible electronics, wearable sensors, and heterogeneous microsystems without compromising existing electronic components.
Beyond improvements in conventional deposition methods, increasing attention is being directed toward multilayer and nanostructured DLC architectures (Murugadoss et al., 2026). Gradient films, multilayer coatings, and nanocomposite structures provide additional opportunities to simultaneously optimize hardness, adhesion, residual stress, electrical conductivity, and surface functionality. Such architectures may overcome many of the limitations associated with monolithic DLC coatings, particularly in demanding mechanical and biomedical environments.
The successful development of DLC coatings for microsystems depends not only on advanced deposition technologies but also on comprehensive materials characterization capable of establishing reliable structure–property relationships (Sanchez et al., 2000). Since the properties of DLC are highly sensitive to bonding configuration, hydrogen content, residual stress, and defect density, a combination of complementary characterization techniques is generally required. Raman spectroscopy remains the most widely employed tool for evaluating the structural organization of amorphous carbon. Parameters such as the D and G bands, the ID/IG intensity ratio, G-band position, G-band dispersion, and the photoluminescence background provide valuable information on the degree of disorder, sp2 clustering, and structural evolution. However, Raman spectroscopy alone cannot accurately quantify the sp3 fraction, particularly in hydrogenated or highly tetrahedral films, and should therefore be interpreted together with other analytical techniques ().
Additional characterization methods provide complementary information that is essential for optimizing deposition processes and predicting device performance (). Table 3 shows the main information obtained and typical use of the main characterization techniques for DLC films. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) enables the investigation of surface chemistry, chemical bonding, elemental composition, and dopant incorporation, while electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) offers valuable insights into the local electronic structure and the relative proportions of π* and σ* bonding states, allowing a more reliable estimation of carbon hybridization (). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is widely employed to identify hydrogen bonding configurations and functional groups, particularly in hydrogenated DLC films. Surface morphology and roughness are commonly evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM), whereas nanoindentation remains the standard technique for measuring hardness and elastic modulus.
TABLE 3
| Technique | Main information obtained | Typical use |
|---|---|---|
| Raman spectroscopy | D and G bands, ID/IG ratio, disorder, sp2 clustering | Structural analysis |
| XPS | Chemical composition, bonding states, dopants | Surface chemistry |
| EELS | π*/σ* ratio, carbon hybridization | sp2/sp3 estimation |
| FTIR | C–H bonding, hydrogen incorporation | Hydrogenated DLC characterization |
| AFM | Surface morphology and roughness | Surface quality |
| Nanoindentation | Hardness and elastic modulus | Mechanical properties |
| SEM | Surface morphology and coating integrity | Microstructure evaluation |
| TEM | Nanostructure and interfaces | Structural characterization |
| ToF-SIMS | Depth profiling and elemental distribution | Interface analysis |
| Scratch testing | Adhesion and critical load | Mechanical reliability |
| Ball-on-disk tribometry | Friction coefficient and wear rate | Tribological performance |
| Contact angle | Wettability and surface energy | Biomedical and microfluidic applications |
| Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy | Corrosion resistance and electrochemical behavior | Biomedical and sensing applications |
Characterization techniques commonly employed for DLC films.
Depending on the intended application, additional characterization techniques such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), contact angle measurements, scratch testing, ball-on-disk tribometry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and accelerated aging tests may also be required to assess film integrity, tribological performance, interfacial adhesion, corrosion resistance, and long-term reliability. The integration of these characterization methods provides a comprehensive understanding of how deposition parameters influence film microstructure and ultimately determine the performance of DLC coatings in microsystems and microdevices. Furthermore, Table 4 summarizes reliability tests for DLC coated Microsystems.
TABLE 4
| Reliability test | Failure mechanism evaluated | Typical application |
|---|---|---|
| Scratch test | Adhesion failure | MEMS coatings |
| Ball-on-disk tribometry | Wear and friction | Moving MEMS components |
| Stiction test | Surface adhesion | MEMS switches and actuators |
| Microcantilever fatigue | Crack initiation and fatigue | Resonators and sensors |
| Thermal cycling | Thermal stress and delamination | Harsh environment MEMS |
| Humidity exposure | Moisture degradation | Environmental sensors |
| Vibration and shock | Mechanical robustness | Automotive and aerospace |
| Long-term actuation | Functional degradation | RF MEMS, microactuators |
| Electrochemical stability | Corrosion and surface degradation | BioMEMS and biosensors |
| Accelerated aging | Lifetime prediction | Biomedical and industrial devices |
Reliability tests for DLC coated microsystems.
Deposition technologies are expected to become increasingly data driven. The integration of real-time plasma monitoring, machine learning algorithms, and digital process optimization may accelerate the discovery of deposition windows that maximize film performance while reducing experimental effort (). These intelligent manufacturing approaches could improve process reproducibility, facilitate industrial scale-up, and enable application-specific DLC coatings with unprecedented levels of precision. Consequently, future advances in deposition technology will be fundamental to establishing DLC not only as a protective coating but also as a platform material for multifunctional microsystems.
5 DLC for flexible and stretchable microsystems
The rapid expansion of flexible and stretchable electronics is creating new opportunities for diamond-like carbon (DLC) films beyond their traditional role as protective coatings (Seetharamiahsrinivasaraju et al., 2024a). Flexible microsystems are becoming increasingly important for applications such as wearable health monitoring, electronic skin, soft robotics, human–machine interfaces, and implantable medical devices (Zhao and Huang, 2017). These emerging technologies require materials that combine mechanical flexibility with high durability, chemical stability, and reliable long-term performance under repeated mechanical deformation.
Although conventional DLC films are often associated with high stiffness and brittleness, recent advances in deposition techniques and film engineering have demonstrated that their mechanical behavior can be significantly modified (Seetharamiahsrinivasaraju et al., 2024b). Careful control of deposition parameters, hydrogen content, film thickness, and doping enables the development of DLC coatings with reduced residual stress and improved flexibility, making them suitable for polymeric substrates and thin flexible electronics (Tsubone et al., 2007; Nakahigashi et al., 2004). Such improvements broaden the range of applications where DLC can provide both mechanical protection and functional performance.
Flexible microsystems frequently operate under cyclic bending, stretching, and twisting conditions, where surface degradation can compromise device reliability. In this context, DLC offers several advantages, including excellent wear resistance, low friction, chemical inertness, and biocompatibility (Usman et al., 2025). These properties are particularly attractive for flexible MEMS, wearable sensors, and implantable devices, where long-term operation in contact with biological fluids or harsh environments is required.
Although considerable progress has been made in reducing the residual stress and improving the flexibility of DLC coatings, it is important to distinguish between bendable, flexible, conformable, and stretchable microsystems. Flexible devices are designed to withstand repeated bending without significant degradation, whereas stretchable systems must accommodate much larger tensile strains through specialized structural designs rather than through the intrinsic deformability of the coating material. Because DLC remains a relatively stiff material compared with elastomers, its direct application in highly stretchable electronics is generally limited unless appropriate mechanical architectures are employed ().
The mechanical reliability of DLC coated flexible microsystems depends strongly on strain distribution during deformation (). Parameters such as critical strain, crack onset strain, bending radius, coating thickness, substrate stiffness, and the location of the neutral mechanical plane govern the initiation and propagation of cracks under repeated loading. Reducing coating thickness and minimizing tensile stress can significantly improve flexibility, while multilayer structures, graded interfaces, and optimized adhesion layers help delay fracture and delamination. These design strategies are particularly important for wearable electronics and flexible MEMS, where repeated bending cycles are unavoidable throughout the device lifetime (Zhao et al., 2023).
For applications requiring stretchability, material optimization alone is insufficient. Instead, structural engineering approaches such as island bridge layouts, serpentine interconnects, buckled films, kirigami inspired geometries, and strain isolating architectures are increasingly employed to accommodate large mechanical deformation while maintaining the functional integrity of the DLC coating (). Further developments are therefore expected to rely on the combined optimization of deposition conditions, interface engineering, coating architecture, and device design rather than on improvements in coating properties alone.
In addition, there is growing interest on multifunctional DLC coatings capable of performing roles beyond mechanical protection. Surface-engineered DLC films may contribute to enhanced electrical conductivity, controlled wettability, antimicrobial activity, and selective biofunctionalization, enabling their integration into flexible biosensors, microfluidic platforms, and epidermal electronics. Combining DLC with nanostructured materials, conductive carbon nanomaterials, or two-dimensional materials may further expand its functional capabilities while preserving mechanical robustness (Murugadoss et al., 2026).
However, several challenges remain before DLC can be widely adopted in flexible and stretchable microsystems. Achieving stable adhesion to soft substrates, maintaining coating integrity under repeated deformation, and ensuring compatibility with scalable, low-temperature fabrication processes continue to be active areas of research (). Overcoming these challenges will require close integration of materials engineering, interface design, and advanced manufacturing strategies.
As flexible electronics continue to evolve toward highly integrated, multifunctional systems, DLC is expected to play an increasingly important role as a platform material that combines protection, functionality, and reliability. Its versatility offers significant potential for the development of flexible microsystems capable of operating under demanding mechanical and environmental conditions.
6 DLC in BioMEMS and biomedical microdevices
The growing demand for miniaturized biomedical technologies has accelerated the development of BioMEMS and biomedical microdevices capable of performing real-time sensing, diagnosis, and therapeutic functions with high precision (). In these applications, material selection extends beyond mechanical performance to include biocompatibility, chemical stability, biofouling resistance, and long-term reliability in physiological environments. Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films combine many of these attributes, making them promising candidates for the next-generation of implantable and wearable biomedical microsystems (Roy and Lee, 2007).
One of the primary advantages of DLC is its excellent biocompatibility (Zia et al., 2025). Numerous studies have demonstrated that properly engineered DLC surfaces can support cell adhesion while minimizing inflammatory responses and reducing protein adsorption when required (). In addition, their high chemical inertness provides effective protection against corrosion and degradation in biological fluids, contributing to the long-term stability of implantable microdevices (). These characteristics are particularly valuable for neural interfaces, cardiovascular sensors, microelectrodes, and implantable MEMS operating under continuous physiological conditions.
The biological performance of DLC coatings is strongly influenced by their surface chemistry, microstructure, and physicochemical properties rather than by the carbon matrix alone. Parameters such as hydrogen content, sp2/sp3 ratio, surface roughness, wettability, surface charge, and elemental doping directly affect protein adsorption, cell adhesion, hemocompatibility, inflammatory response, and bacterial colonization (Shah, et al., 2024). Therefore, biological performance cannot be generalized across all DLC coatings, as different deposition methods and post-deposition surface modifications may produce significantly different biological responses (). Surface engineering strategies, including oxygen or nitrogen plasma treatments, biomolecule immobilization, and chemical functionalization, have been widely explored to tailor cell–material interactions and improve the biological performance of DLC-coated microdevices ().
For implantable and wearable microsystems, the interaction between the DLC surface and the biological environment plays a decisive role in long-term device performance (). Protein adsorption is typically the first event following implantation and strongly influences subsequent cellular responses, including macrophage activation, fibroblast adhesion, and tissue integration (Sani-Taiariol et al., 2026). Depending on the application, DLC surfaces may be engineered either to promote cell attachment, as required for tissue engineering, or to minimize biofouling and nonspecific protein adsorption in biosensors and microfluidic devices (). Likewise, hemocompatibility is essential for blood-contacting devices, where platelet adhesion, thrombus formation, and complement activation must be minimized to ensure safe long-term operation (Shiba et al., 2014).
The biological evaluation of DLC coatings should therefore rely on standardized testing protocols rather than isolated biocompatibility claims. International standards such as the ISO 10993 series provide guidance for the biological assessment of medical devices (), including cytotoxicity (ISO 10993-5), irritation and sensitization (ISO 10993-10), and evaluation of local tissue effects after implantation (ISO 10993-6). Depending on the intended application, additional assessments including hemolysis, platelet adhesion, bacterial adhesion, inflammatory marker expression, electrochemical stability, accelerated aging, and long-term immersion in simulated physiological fluids are also recommended. The adoption of standardized biological evaluation protocols will facilitate meaningful comparisons among studies and accelerate the translation of DLC-coated microsystems from laboratory research to clinical applications.
The surface properties of DLC can also be tailored to meet specific biomedical requirements (Ohgoe et al., 2012). Surface functionalization through plasma treatment, chemical modification, or biomolecule immobilization enables the development of highly selective biosensors and lab-on-a-chip devices capable of detecting biomarkers, pathogens, or metabolites with improved sensitivity and specificity (Roy and Lee, 2007). Furthermore, doping with elements such as nitrogen, silicon, fluorine, or metals offers additional opportunities to tune electrical conductivity, wettability, antimicrobial activity, and biological interactions according to the intended application (; ).
Future BioMEMS are expected to become increasingly multifunctional, integrating sensing, signal processing, drug delivery, and wireless communication into compact platforms (). In this scenario, DLC may evolve from a passive protective layer into an active component that contributes directly to device performance. For example, nanostructured and functionalized DLC films could enhance electrochemical sensing, improve microfluidic interfaces, or provide surfaces that actively regulate biological interactions at the device–tissue interface.
Even with these promising developments, important challenges remain such as achieving reproducible biofunctionalization, ensuring long-term stability of surface modifications, minimizing biofouling during extended operation, and integrating DLC coatings into complex microfabrication processes. Standardized biological evaluation protocols and long-term in vivo studies will also be essential to accelerate clinical translation (Wachesk et al., 2021).
As personalized medicine, wearable healthcare, and implantable microsystems continue to advance, DLC plays an increasingly important role in biomedical microdevices. Its unique combination of mechanical robustness, chemical stability, and tunable surface functionality positions it as a strategic material for enabling safer, more reliable, and multifunctional BioMEMS technologies.
7 DLC in other emerging fields
Beyond MEMS, flexible electronics, and biomedical microdevices, diamond-like carbon (DLC) is expected to play an increasingly important role in several emerging technological fields. Its unique combination of mechanical robustness, chemical stability, tunable electrical properties, and surface versatility makes it an attractive material for multifunctional microsystems designed to operate under demanding conditions ().
One promising area is the development of energy microsystems, where DLC coatings can improve the durability and performance of microbatteries, microsupercapacitors, piezoelectric and triboelectric energy harvesters, and miniaturized power management devices (Ramaswamy et al., 2019). The excellent wear resistance and chemical stability of DLC are particularly valuable in microsystems subjected to repeated mechanical loading or aggressive operating environments.
Another emerging direction is the design of intelligent and multifunctional surfaces. Advances in nanostructured, multilayer, and doped DLC architectures enable the simultaneous optimization of tribological, electrical, optical, and biological properties (). Such multifunctional coatings may provide not only protection against wear and corrosion but also electrical conductivity, controlled wettability, antimicrobial activity, or enhanced optical performance, expanding their applicability in integrated microsystems.
The integration of DLC with advanced materials also represents an exciting research frontier. Hybrid structures combining DLC with two-dimensional materials, carbon nanostructures, or functional nanomaterials may lead to devices with enhanced sensing capabilities, improved charge transport, and superior mechanical performance (Nagappan et al., 2025). These combinations could enable innovative applications in photonic microsystems, quantum sensing, and high-performance environmental monitoring (; Murugadoss et al., 2026).
Advances in DLC are also expected to benefit from advances in artificial intelligence and digital manufacturing. Machine learning algorithms, high-throughput experimentation, and real-time process monitoring may accelerate the optimization of deposition parameters and material properties, reduce development time while improve reproducibility and scalability (). Such approaches are becoming increasingly important as microsystems grow more complex and application specific.
Finally, sustainability is likely to become an important driver for future DLC technologies. The development of low-temperature deposition processes, energy-efficient manufacturing routes, and environmentally friendly production strategies will contribute to reducing the environmental impact of thin-film fabrication while facilitating industrial adoption (Seetharamiahsrinivasaraju et al., 2024c). As these advances converge, DLC evolves beyond its traditional role as a protective coating, becoming a key enabling material for the next-generation of intelligent, multifunctional, and sustainable microsystems.
8 Challenges that must be overcome and future outlook
Despite the remarkable progress achieved in the development of diamond-like carbon (DLC) films, several scientific and technological challenges must still be addressed before their full potential in microsystems and microdevices can be realized. A major challenge remains the precise control of residual stress, which directly influences film adhesion, mechanical reliability, and long-term stability. Although significant advances have been achieved through optimized deposition processes and multilayer architectures, stress management continues to limit the deposition of thick, defect-free coatings and their integration with fragile microstructures.
Another important issue is compatibility with modern microfabrication technologies. Future microsystems will increasingly rely on heterogeneous integration involving complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) circuits, flexible polymer substrates, and hybrid material platforms. Consequently, the development of low-temperature deposition processes capable of preserving the performance of temperature-sensitive components will be essential for expanding the use of DLC in next-generation devices. Table 5 summarizes the research priorities for advancing DLC in microsystems and microdevices.
TABLE 5
| Priority | Scientific challenge | Expected impact |
|---|---|---|
| Low-temperature deposition | CMOS compatibility | Monolithic integration |
| Residual stress engineering | Film cracking and adhesion | Reliable MEMS |
| Nanostructured DLC | Property optimization | Multifunctional devices |
| Surface functionalization | Biointerfaces | BioMEMS and biosensors |
| AI-assisted deposition | Process optimization | Faster materials development |
| Sustainable manufacturing | Energy-efficient processing | Industrial scalability |
Research priorities for advancing DLC in microsystems and microdevices.
From an industrial perspective, reproducibility and scalability remain significant barriers. Achieving uniform coatings over large areas, ensuring consistent film properties across production batches, and establishing standardized characterization and qualification protocols are critical steps toward commercial implementation. Bridging the gap between laboratory-scale demonstrations and industrial manufacturing will require closer collaboration among materials scientists, device engineers, and manufacturing specialists.
In the short term, research efforts should primarily focus on improving deposition reproducibility, reducing residual stress, enhancing adhesion, and developing low-temperature processes compatible with CMOS back-end integration and flexible substrates. Medium-term advances are likely to emphasize multifunctional coatings, interface engineering, AI-assisted process optimization, standardized reliability protocols, and scalable manufacturing strategies. In the longer term, the convergence of advanced DLC materials with intelligent manufacturing, heterogeneous integration, self-powered microsystems, and application-specific device architectures is expected to enable a new generation of highly reliable, multifunctional, and autonomous microsystems. This technological evolution highlights that future progress will depend not only on further improvements in coating properties but also on the simultaneous optimization of materials, processing, characterization, device integration, and long-term reliability.
Looking ahead, the future of DLC extends well beyond its traditional role as a protective coating. Continued advances in nanostructured and doped films, multifunctional surface engineering, and intelligent deposition technologies are expected to transform DLC into an active component of microsystems, contributing simultaneously to mechanical protection, sensing, electrical functionality, and biological interactions. The integration of artificial intelligence with process optimization and materials design may further accelerate the development of application-specific coatings while improving manufacturing efficiency and reproducibility.
The future impact of DLC will depend on the convergence of materials science, microfabrication, device engineering, and sustainable manufacturing. As these fields continue to evolve, DLC becomes a key enabling material for reliable, multifunctional, and highly integrated microsystems, supporting technological advances in healthcare, environmental monitoring, smart manufacturing, and future microelectronic devices.
9 Conclusion
Diamond-like carbon has evolved from a simple protective coating into a multifunctional platform material for next-generation microsystems. This perspective article highlights that DLC should be understood not as a single material, but as a diverse family of amorphous carbon coatings whose performance depends on the interplay between bonding configuration, hydrogen content, doping, and device architecture, favoring a materials-by-design approach over isolated property optimization.
Key challenges remain: residual stress control in thick, highly tetrahedral films; reliable adhesion across substrates; low-temperature deposition compatible with CMOS and flexible platforms; and scalable, reproducible manufacturing. Addressing these will require comprehensive structure–property characterization (Raman, XPS, EELS, nanoindentation) alongside standardized protocols for biological evaluation and device-level reliability testing.
Two trends are likely to shape the field going forward: the convergence of materials science with digital engineering (AI-assisted process optimization, digital twins, data-driven discovery) and a growing emphasis on sustainable, low-energy manufacturing. Ultimately, advancing DLC will depend less on maximizing any single property and more on balanced, application-specific integration across mechanical, electrical, and biological performance domains.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
MF: Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. MAF acknowledges the financial support from MackPesquisa (Grant no. 251033), CNPq (Grants No. 301276/2025-0, 402511/2025-5 and 460118/2025-0) and Fundação CENEP.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Summary
Keywords
biomedical applications, diamond-like carbon, emerging applications, microdevices, microsystems
Citation
Fraga MA (2026) Future directions for diamond-like carbon in microsystems and microdevices. Front. Carbon 5:1924248. doi: 10.3389/frcrb.2026.1924248
Received
30 June 2026
Revised
24 July 2026
Accepted
06 August 2026
Published
27 August 2026
Volume
5 - 2026
Edited by
Federico Picollo, University of Turin, Italy
Reviewed by
Robert Matos, Universidade Federal do Amapá, Brazil
Zhuo Li, Hunan Agricultural University, China
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Fraga.
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*Correspondence: Mariana Amorim Fraga, mariana.fraga@mackenzie.br
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.