DNA methylation plays a critical role during spermatogenesis (Gunes et al., 2018b; Fend-Guella et al., 2019; Franzago et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2019; Pisarska et al., 2019). The correct methylation of DNA ensures proper chromatin condensation in the sperm head, enabling sperm maturation and its ability in fertilization and post-fertilization events (Carrell, 2019). Contrariwise, incomplete or abnormal condensation of the sperm chromatin results in damaged DNA, leading to the impairment of egg cell fertilization and/or reduction in pregnancy rates (Benchaib et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2009; McSwiggin and O’Doherty, 2018). Considering these aspects, several studies have analyzed the gene and genome methylation levels of sperm DNA in association with male reproductive dysfunctions (Houshdaran et al., 2007; Rotondo et al., 2012, 2013; Das et al., 2017; Alkhaled et al., 2018). These studies have mainly, but not only, investigated associations between improper DNA methylation in spermatozoa genome and negative variations in semen parameters, such as concentration (oligozoospermia), morphology (teratozoospermia), and progressive motility (asthenozoospermia), alone or in combinations, i.e., oligoasthenozoospermia (OA), oligoteratozoospermia, asthenoteratozoospermia (AT), and oligoasthenoteratozoospermia (OAT). Semen samples are considered normal when the concentration, motility, and morphology are ≥15 × 10⁶ sperm/ml, ≥32% (sperm progressive motility), and ≥4% normal, respectively (Cooper et al., 2009).

Several genes carrying defective methylation have been associated with abnormalities in semen parameters (Table 1). One of the most highly studied genes is methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) (Haggarty, 2015; Saraswathy et al., 2018; Coppedè et al., 2019; Mishra et al., 2019; Kulac et al., 2021), which is a key regulatory enzyme involved in folate metabolism and in DNA synthesis and methylation (Födinger et al., 2000). In male mice testes, the activity of MTHFR is five times higher than in other organs (Chen, 2001), whereas its inactivation results in hyperhomocysteinemia, decreased methylation capacity, and the arrest of spermatogenesis due to sperm DNA hypomethylation (Chen, 2001). In humans, a number of studies have pointed out that impairment of the MTHFR gene can contribute to disease, including male infertility (Stangler Herodež et al., 2013; Tara et al., 2015; Coppedè et al., 2016, 2019; Lévesque et al., 2016; Asim et al., 2017). Mutations/polymorphisms in MTHFR gene are broadly known causes of reduced MTHFR enzyme activity in sperm cells, resulting in reduced methionine availability and decreased DNA methylation (Gupta et al., 2011; Montjean et al., 2011; Murphy et al., 2011; Safarinejad et al., 2011; Choi et al., 2016; Poorang et al., 2018; Ullah et al., 2019). The improper methylation of MTHFR gene in sperm germ cells may likewise result in decreased MTHFR enzyme activity, leading to aberrant methylation of sperm DNA. Hypermethylation of MTHFR has been found in testes from males affected by non-obstructive azoospermia and in sperm cells from males affected by oligozoospermia and teratozoospermia as well as in idiopathic infertile males (Khazamipour et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2010; Botezatu et al., 2014; Karaca et al., 2017). In our previous studies, hypermethylation at the MTHFR promoter has been found to be associated with aberrant concentration, motility, and morphology in males from infertile couples affected by recurrent spontaneous abortion (Rotondo et al., 2012). In addition, we have found a correlation between MTHFR gene promoter hypermethylation and extensive methylation defects at the paternal imprinted gene H19 in sperm DNAs from infertile males with both normal and abnormal semen parameters. These results have suggested that MTHFR hypermethylation-induced inactivation may affect methylation at the imprinted loci of sperm cells, leading to impaired fertilization (Rotondo et al., 2013). Contrariwise, no correlation was found between methylation errors at H19 and MEST genes and inactivating MTHFR C677T single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) [a cytosine (C) to a thymine (T) substitution at position 677] in sperm DNA from infertile patients with defective semen parameters. However, a higher incidence trend of aberrant DNA methylation among severe oligozoospermic infertile males carrying C677T genotype was observed (Louie et al., 2016).

Germline mutations arise from replication errors, potentially resulting in reproductive health impairment (Gao et al., 2019; Altakroni et al., 2021). Accordingly, the genetic defects of DNA mismatch repair mechanisms have been related to impaired spermatogenesis and male infertility (Gunes et al., 2015; Hekim et al., 2021; Metin Mahmutoglu et al., 2021). A recent study has investigated the methylation profile of the DNA mismatch repair gene MutL alpha (MLH1) in sperm DNA from oligozoospermic patients and normozoospermic males enrolled as the control group (Gunes et al., 2018a). The results indicated an association between MLH1 hypermethylation and male infertility, suggesting that this gene might be under epigenetic regulation during sperm cell development (Gunes et al., 2018a). High methylation levels of the DNA repair X-ray repair cross-complementing protein 1 gene have been found in OAT males, thereby suggesting that the improper methylation of this gene may have a role in sperm chromatin condensation and OAT (Metin Mahmutoglu et al., 2021). Contrariwise, two additional well-known DNA repair genes, i.e., breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein (BRCA1) and BRCA2, did not show defective methylation in infertile men with OAT (Kabartan et al., 2019).

Several other genes found aberrantly methylated in altered sperm samples from infertile males have been investigated at a single-study level (Table 1). Overall, several abnormally methylated genes have been found to be associated to altered sperm parameters, mainly oligozoospermia, indicating a potential involvement of DNA methylation in male infertility. All, but MTHFR, gene investigations have been carried out at a single-study level and need further studies to be confirmed. On the contrary, improper MTHFR promoter methylation, such as hypermethylation, has been repeatedly found in aberrant sperm samples, suggesting the methylation-induced MTHFR dysregulation as a potential causal factor of abnormal sperm changes. Interestingly, MTHFR hypermethylation has been found in normal sperm samples of males from idiopathic infertile couples. This may indicate that MTHFR dysfunction could play a role in changing sperm function and health, possibly by lowering CpG methylation content in imprinted genes, which, in turn, may affect embryo development and pregnancy outcome (Rotondo et al., 2013). In view of finding gene methylation hallmarks in male infertility, these data are interesting and will deserve further investigations. For instance, large studies of different infertile populations along with a functional analysis of hypermethylation are needed in order to elucidate the role and the mechanisms of the MTHFR gene in human spermatogenesis and the related pathologies.

Over the years, with the development of molecular technology/methods (Park et al., 2012; Tognon et al., 2015; Rotondo et al., 2018b, 2020a; Mazzoni et al., 2020; Preti et al., 2020; Oton-Gonzalez et al., 2021), many studies have investigated the relationship between DNA methylation and male infertility on a genome-wide scale by employing high-throughput techniques (Houshdaran et al., 2007; Ferfouri et al., 2013; Schütte et al., 2013; Camprubí et al., 2016; Du et al., 2016; Jenkins et al., 2016a, b; Laqqan et al., 2017a; Lee et al., 2019). The first array-wide analysis was performed by Houshdaran et al. (2007) highlighting improper DNA methylation at repetitive element satellite 2, H-RAS, neurotrophin 3, paired-box gene 8, and Stratifin, 3′-nucleotidase, and metallothionein 1A genes in semen samples with abnormal sperm concentration, motility, and morphology. DNA methylation variations at over 9K CpGs spread throughout the testicular genome have been detected between obstructive and non-obstructive azoospermic patients (Ferfouri et al., 2013). The human methylation 450k array analysis in semen samples from couples who conceived and couples who did not showed significantly decreased and increased methylation in two and three genomic regions, respectively, in the “failure-to-conceive” group. Interestingly, the two sites with low methylation content were at closely related genes known to be expressed in the sperm, i.e., HSPA1L and HSPA1B (Jenkins et al., 2016b). A recent methylome and transcriptome study in euploid blastocysts derived from couples with OAT males reported significant alterations in approximately 1.1K CpGs compared to the cryopreserved euploid blastocysts used as controls (Denomme et al., 2018). A pathway analysis elucidated the genes involved in the regulation of cellular metabolic process as universally affected. This epigenetic dysregulation provided an explanation for the reduced reproductive potential in OAT patients despite euploid blastocyst transfers (Denomme et al., 2018).

Additional array-wide studies have been reported to show the following: (i) changes in the methylation of testis/epididymis-specific genes in the testis and epididymis of vasectomized males (Wu et al., 2013), (ii) loss of methylation in inflammation- and immune response-related genes in sperm samples from males belonging to infertile couples (Schütte et al., 2013), and (iii) gain of methylation in spermatogenesis-related genes in sperm samples derived from individuals undergoing assisted reproduction (Schütte et al., 2013).

In normospermic males, the DNA methylome of the sperm cell differs between infertile and fertile, and this difference may be predictive of embryo quality during in vitro fertilization (Aston et al., 2015). Nevertheless, differences in sperm epigenome within healthy subjects have been also detected, indicating intra-sample heterogeneity in DNA methylation patterns (Jenkins et al., 2014). Furthermore, additional studies have underlined potential epigenetic heterogeneity among, and within, sperm cells, spermatogonia, and gonocytes (Kuhtz et al., 2014; Laurentino et al., 2015, 2016).

The impairment of both sperm epigenome and gene expression in relation to male reproductive dysfunction was recently explored using high-throughput techniques. Hypermethylation-induced silencing at SRY-Box Transcription Factor 30 gene has been detected in association with non-obstructive azoospermia (Han et al., 2020). Two array-wide studies have described inverse correlations between DNA methylation and the mRNA expression of genes involved in different pathways, such as the response to hormone stimulus, activation of protein kinase activity, apoptosis, and reproduction, in sperm from both severe oligozoospermic and azoospermic patients (Li et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2020).

As high-throughput approaches are able to detect extensive variations in epigenetic marks, DNA methylation changes could potentially be used as a diagnostic tool to predict the risk of both male infertility and male infertility-related diseases (Aston et al., 2015; Fang et al., 2019; Patel et al., 2020). For instance, an array-based DNA methylation profile conducted on peripheral blood has revealed variations in DNA methylation patterns in infertile males compared to normozoospermic fertile controls, suggesting that epigenome-based blood markers can be used for diagnostic purposes (Sarkar et al., 2019). This has also been suggested by the results of another high-throughput study focused on congenital hypopituitarism (CH), which is a pituitary gland hormone deficiency that leads to metabolic disorders and male reproductive dysfunction. This study identified methylation at CpG sites on two spermatogenesis/testicular development-related genes in whole blood DNA isolated from a cohort of CH patients (Fang et al., 2019). In this context, the clinical application of these highly sensitive techniques cannot be ruled out. As high-throughput approaches can potentially support work on defining the forms of male infertility, these methods will deserve attention in andrological clinical practice (Ferlin and Foresta, 2014).

DNA methyltransferases and TET are two key regulative gene families involved in DNA methylation and demethylation pathways, respectively, during both embryogenesis and spermatogenesis (Nettersheim et al., 2013; Barišić et al., 2017; Li et al., 2019). Despite their critical role in sperm methylation, the DNMT and TET genes have been poorly investigated in the context of male infertility (Uysal et al., 2016, 2019; Tang et al., 2017, 2018). Decreased expression of DNMT1, -3A, and -3B enzymes in association with global DNA methylation changes has been detected in the testes of non-obstructive azoospermic patients, suggesting that the methylation-induced DNMT inactivation may be involved in male reproductive dysfunction (Uysal et al., 2019). The presence of DNMT1 SNP variant rs4804490 was found to be associated with an increased risk of idiopathic infertility in males with abnormal semen parameters (Tang et al., 2017). In the same study, no associations were afterward determined between additional four DNMT variants, i.e., DNMT1 (rs4804490), DNMT3A (rs1550117), DNMT3B (rs2424909), and DNMT3L (rs7354779), and aberrant DNA methylation at several imprinted genes, including H19, GNAS complex locus (GNAS), and GTP-binding protein Di-Ras3 (DIRAS3) (Tang et al., 2018). Conversely, two SNP variants, rs2656927/rs8103849, of ubiquitin-like, containing PHD and RING finger domains 1 (UHRF1) gene, which is tightly related to the DNMT1 pathway, have been identified in the blood of oligozoospermic infertile males (Zhu et al., 2019). Other recent evidence indicated that UHRF1 inactivation may have a negative impact on male fertility potential, as the conditional loss of this gene in germ cells leads to DNA hypomethylation, upregulation of retrotransposons, and DNA damage response activation (Dong et al., 2019). UHRF1 also cooperates with the PIWI/piRNA pathway during spermatogenesis, suggesting a molecular link between DNA methylation and the PIWI/piRNA pathway in the germline (Dong et al., 2019).

Ten-eleven translocation 1, -2, and -3 genes have been found to be consecutively expressed at different stages of spermatogenesis, and their expression levels have been positively correlated to male reproductive potential and pregnancy (Ni et al., 2016). Indeed sperms from oligozoospermic and/or asthenozoospermia males have significantly reduced TET1, -2 and -3 mRNAs compared to fertile donors, but not to normozoospermic males (Ni et al., 2016). TET1 protein deficiency in spermatogonia decreases the 5hmC levels and downregulates genes that are involved in several pathways, such as cell cycle, germ cell differentiation, meiosis, and reproduction, resulting in the reduction of spermatogonia stem cells and germ cell differentiation (Huang et al., 2020).

When taken together, these studies suggest that DNMT and TET impairment in sperm cells may represent a potential risk factor for male infertility. Therefore, further investigations are needed to assess the role of DNMT and TET enzymes in the male infertility phenotype.

Imbalances in the methylation patterns of imprinted genes could potentially impair spermatogenesis and/or favor the male infertility phenotype (Hartmann et al., 2006; Rotondo et al., 2012, 2013; Das et al., 2017; Laurentino et al., 2019; Åsenius et al., 2020a; Pohl et al., 2021). The methylation status of a number of imprinted genes has been investigated in relation to impaired spermatogenesis and/or reproductive dysfunction (Table 2). DNA methylation defects of three maternally imprinted genes, i.e., PLAGL1, MEST, and DIRAS3, have been identified in sperm DNAs from infertile males with a low semen concentration (Houshdaran et al., 2007). One of these genes, MEST, has been repeatedly found as hypermethylated in association with the male infertility phenotype (Marques et al., 2004; Hammoud et al., 2010; El Hajj et al., 2011; Montjean et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2016). Specifically, the improper DNA methylation at MEST has been (i) linked to low sperm concentration and motility as well as poor sperm morphology in idiopathic infertile males (Marques et al., 2008; Poplinski et al., 2010; Kläver et al., 2013), (ii) detected in primary spermatocytes from azoospermic patients presenting complete or incomplete maturation arrest (Marques et al., 2017), (iii) associated with decreased bi-testicular volume and increased follicle-stimulating hormone levels (Kläver et al., 2013), and (iv) associated with abnormal protamine ratio in oligozoospermic patients (Hammoud et al., 2010). These data have been further confirmed by a meta-analytic study (Santi et al., 2017). Recently, MEST hypermethylation has been found in the spermatozoa of male partners from couples experiencing recurrent pregnancy loss (Khambata et al., 2021).

Altered methylation in H19 has been broadly documented to be associated with infertile males affected by oligozoospermia, asthenozoospermia, teratozoospermia, OA, AT, and OAT (Marques et al., 2004, 2008, 2010; Kobayashi et al., 2007; Boissonnas et al., 2010; Minor et al., 2011; Rotondo et al., 2013; Li et al., 2016; Dong et al., 2017; Bruno et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2018). Idiopathic infertile males with normal semen parameters have also been found to carry methylation defects at H19 in their sperm (Poplinski et al., 2010; Ankolkar et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2018). Imprinting errors at H19 gene were detected in primary spermatocytes and elongated spermatids/spermatozoa with incomplete maturation arrest from two azoospermic patients, although the differences in H19 methylation levels between patients and controls were not statistically significant (Marques et al., 2017). In addition, abnormal methylation at H19 has been shown at the regulatory region CTCF-binding site 6 (CTCF6), located within the DMR of IGF2-H19, in sperm DNA from infertile males (Rotondo et al., 2013). Therefore, sperm cells carrying methylation defects at the IGF2-H19 CTCF6 region are at a high risk of causing biallelic inactivation of the IGF2 gene, which, in turn, could negatively impact embryo development and/or pregnancy outcome (Boissonnas et al., 2010; Santi et al., 2017; Bruno et al., 2018). Similarly, methylation defects at IGF2-H19 have been detected in placenta tissues from offspring conceived by assisted reproductive technologies (ART) (Pinborg et al., 2016; Hattori et al., 2019; Lou et al., 2019). Thus, these studies have pointed out that ART procedures may account for the epigenetic defects in the embryo.

Altered DNA methylation patterns at overlapping transcript 1 (LIT1) and SNRPN have been found in infertile males tested with abnormal protamine ratio in sperm cells (Hammoud et al., 2010). Aberrant methylation at the SNRPN gene has also been associated with altered sperm motility and morphology as well as with OA and AT (Botezatu et al., 2014; Peng et al., 2018). Interestingly, imprinting errors at the SNRPN gene and IGF2-H19 have also been found in spermatozoa from asthenozoospermia patients and in ART-conceived human fetuses (Lou et al., 2019). Hypermethylation at SNRPN, alongside other maternally imprinted genes involved in embryonic germ cell development, such as MEG3, PEG1 (also known as MEST), PEG3, LIT1, and PLAG1 like zinc finger 1 (ZAC), as well as loss of methylation at the paternal imprinted gene GTL2 has been detected in sperm DNA derived from patients affected by moderate/severe oligozoospermia (Kobayashi et al., 2007). Hypermethylation of PEG1, PEG3, PEG10, and ZAC genes has been shown in spermatozoa from male partners from couples experiencing recurrent pregnancy loss (Khambata et al., 2021). Contrariwise, the lack of altered methylation has been reported for PEG1, ZAC, and GTL2 in the sperm of male partners from recurrent spontaneous miscarriages (Ankolkar et al., 2013). Lastly, the maternally imprinted gene SNRPN upstream reading frame protein, which is related to the SNRPN pathway, has been detected as hypermethylated in association with oligozoospermia (Bruno et al., 2018).

An additional imprinted gene possibly involved in male reproductive dysfunction is zinc-finger CCHC-type containing 13 (ZCCHC13). ZCCHC13 is a novel imprinted gene involved in an epigenetic mechanism known as X-chromosome inactivation and has been detected both hypermethylated and down-regulated in testis biopsies isolated from non-obstructive azoospermia patients (Li et al., 2018). Low methylation at GNAS and DIRAS3 imprinted genes has also been found to be more prevalent in idiopathic infertile males, especially in oligozoospermic males, than in fertile males (Bruno et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2018). The evidence that improper DNA methylation at the GNAS gene is linked to male infertility is also supported by animal models (Congras et al., 2014).

Imprinting errors could also be related to DNA fragmentation in sperm cells. Indeed, the improper methylation of the paternally imprinted gene Potassium Voltage-Gated Channel Subfamily Q Member 1 (KCNQ1), along with that of IGF2, has been found to be associated with a high level of DNA fragmentation in semen samples (Ni et al., 2019). In addition, the centromeric (domain 2) differentially methylated region (KvDMR) located in exon 10 of KCNQ1OT1 has been found to be hypermethylated in the spermatozoa of male partners from couples experiencing recurrent pregnancy loss (Khambata et al., 2021).

A recent array-wide methylation analysis conducted on sperm DNA from a cohort of males identified a number of genes associated with infertility, including the maternally imprinted genes DLG associated protein 2 (DLGAP2) and GATA binding protein 3 as well as the paternally imprinted genes catenin alpha 3, membrane-associated guanylate kinase, and tumor protein 73 (Sujit et al., 2018). An additional gene, brevican, which is a non-imprinted gene involved in brain extracellular matrix formation, has been identified in this study. All these genes might be considered as novel potential candidates accounting for male infertility phenotype, and their roles in spermatogenesis need to be further investigated (Sujit et al., 2018).

In conclusion, many imprinted genes have been investigated for methylation in aberrant semen samples, such as oligozoospermia, asthenozoospermia, and teratozoospermia. H19 and MEST were the most investigated genes in aberrant sperm samples, showing repetitively aberrant loss or gain of methylation, respectively, which, in turn, may be causal factors in the development of male infertility. Of note is the fact that aberrant methylations have also been found in infertile males with normal sperm parameters. This aspect may have important implications in the diagnosis of male infertility, which, to date, lacks explanation in 30% of infertile males. It is also hoped that further studies will shed light into the etiology of these aberrant imprinting patterns in paternally or maternally imprinted genes in idiopathic infertility cases. Indeed the loss of methylation of paternally imprinted genes may be due to a deficiency of DNMTs, whereas hypermethylation of maternally imprinted genes might result from erroneous de novo methylation or a failure to erase maternal imprint in the male germ cell genomes (Barlow and Bartolomei, 2014; Uysal et al., 2019).

Habits and lifestyle factors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and diet, have been investigated in an effort to gain insight into the causes of aberrant sperm DNA methylation in relation to male infertility (El Khoury et al., 2019). A recent pilot study conducted on sperm DNA from a cohort of infertile males who underwent a supervised yoga practice regimen reported DNA methylation changes at nearly 400 genes, suggesting a link between positive lifestyle practices and male reproductive health (Bisht et al., 2020).

Tobacco smoke has a strong negative impact on sperm DNA methylation in a number of genes, also demonstrated in animal models (Xu et al., 2013; Dai et al., 2016; Dong et al., 2017; Laqqan et al., 2017a; Hamad et al., 2018; Wyck et al., 2018; Fragou et al., 2019). The imprinted gene SNRPN has been found to be aberrantly methylated in asthenozoospermia and teratozoospermic smokers (Dong et al., 2017). Other studies on humans and/or animal models have reported modifications to sperm DNA methylation following cannabis use (Murphy et al., 2018; Reece and Hulse, 2019). Improper DLGAP2 methylation has recently been reported in sperm from cannabis users, thereby suggesting the potentially negative effect of cannabis use prior to conception on imprinting marks (Schrott et al., 2020). In this context, the impact of parental drug addiction on sperm DNA methylation in drug-sired offspring needs to be more deeply explored (Jarred et al., 2018; Nieto and Kosten, 2019). Moreover, both alcohol and nicotine consumption seem to impair DNA methylation in several genes and genomic regions, leading to male infertility. Indeed data on DNA methylation changes at cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A and LINE1 and an increased risk of male reproductive dysfunction have been reported (Zhang et al., 2019). More recently, evidence has also indicated that DNA methylation defects at MEST and GNAS genes, along with altered sperm motility, morphology, and concentration, could be linked to alcohol and nicotine exposure (Zhang et al., 2019).

Paternal diet is able to alter sperm epigenome and has been associated with negative pregnancy outcomes in mice (Lambrot et al., 2013). In addition, sperm from mice under a folate-deficient diet showed differential DNA methylation marks at genes implicated in development, diabetes, autism, and schizophrenia (Lambrot et al., 2013). In humans, several studies have reported on the relationship between paternal and/or maternal diet and sperm DNA methylation in male infertility (Shukla et al., 2014; Hoek et al., 2020; Toschi et al., 2020). A recent study conducted on infertile males who underwent oral supplementation with micronutrients in support of folate, B vitamins, zinc, and cysteines reported an increase in DNA methylation levels, resulting in improved sperm nuclear maturation and antioxidant defenses, with a possible positive effect on reproductive function (Bassiri et al., 2020). Furthermore, evidences on sperm DNA from infertile males indicate a high methylation of vitamin D receptor promoter in vitamin D-deficient conditions, thus suggesting the role of diet in epigenetic modifications and male reproductive dysfunction (Vladoiu et al., 2017). Similarly, one investigation indicated that parental diet can modulate the methylation levels of several genes, including liver-specific genes involved in cholesterol/lipid metabolism, whereas no effect of paternal diet on sperm DNA methylation was found in other studies (Carone et al., 2010; Rando and Simmons, 2015; Shea et al., 2015; Whitelaw, 2015). Similarly, parental pre-conceptional obesity could potentially impact on the establishment of imprinting marks during embryogenesis (Soubry et al., 2015; Ou et al., 2019; Åsenius et al., 2020b; Keyhan et al., 2021). Changes in methylation in two imprinted genes, PLAGL1 and MEG3, have been detected in umbilical cord blood leukocytes in a group of newborns from obese mothers, making a link between maternal overnutrition and the impairment of imprinting marks in the offspring (Soubry et al., 2015). In males, imprinted genes involved in growth and development, including PEG3 and neuronatin alongside MEST, have been found to be hypomethylated in DNA derived from the blood of children of obese fathers. The relationship between parental obesity and the methylation status of the offspring clearly indicates that spermatogenesis may be susceptible to environmental factors from an epigenetic point of view (Soubry et al., 2015). A recent animal model study supported and extended this conclusion by reporting data about environmental toxicant exposure and transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic marks (Sadler-Riggleman et al., 2019). Additional animal models have shown similar results, reporting that epigenetic alterations at PEG3 and H19 can occur in sperm cells in offspring from diabetic and/or obese mice (Ge et al., 2014). These studies, when taken together, highlight that both defective DNA methylation and imprinting marks may be transferred through generations, potentially affecting the health of adult offspring (Grossniklaus et al., 2013; Ge et al., 2014; Soubry et al., 2015; Blanco Rodríguez and Camprubí Sánchez, 2019). However, this assumption has been questioned in a recent meta-analysis of coordinated epigenome-wide association studies of paternal prenatal body mass index (BMI) in relation to DNA methylation (Sharp et al., 2021). The study conclusions do not support the hypothesis that paternal BMI around the time of pregnancy is linked with offspring-blood DNA methylation, even at the imprinted regions (Sharp et al., 2021). Considering the data available, more research is needed to address the role of paternal diet on sperm DNA methylation in infertile males.