Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) is a condition characterized by the depletion of ovarian function before the age of 40 (Nelson, 2009a), presenting a significant reproductive challenge and serving as a prevalent cause of female infertility (Welt, 2008). Recent data reveal a concerning rise in POI incidence, impacting approximately six million Chinese women before the age of 40 (Lin et al., 2017). The etiologies of POI are notably diverse, with over half of the cases presenting as complex and uncertain. Identified causative factors encompass spontaneous genetic defects, autoimmune diseases, infections, or iatrogenic interventions (De Vos et al., 2010). Genetic factors, a well-established contributor, account for about 20%–25% of cases, underscoring the need for robust research to unravel pathogenic mechanisms and identify therapeutic targets (Qin et al., 2015; França and Mendonca, 2022). This pursuit is crucial for facilitating early diagnosis and the development of effective treatments for POI.

Recent advancements in high-throughput sequencing technology have emerged as crucial tools for delving into the origins of POI. While the exact mechanisms underlying POI remain incompletely understood, significant strides have been made in identifying genes that play a role in its development (Jaillard et al., 2020). Currently, approximately 90 genes have been associated with either isolated or syndromic forms of POI, underscoring the substantial genetic diversity inherent in the condition (Dixit et al., 2010). Gene expression analyses have shed light on the molecular underpinnings driving the pathogenesis of POI. In a comprehensive study, Smith et al. delved into gene expressions in ovarian tissue from POI patients, revealing disruptions in crucial signaling pathways that govern follicular development and hormonal regulation (Simoni and Casarini, 2014). Noteworthy genes such as FSHR and BMP15 were implicated, highlighting their vital roles in maintaining normal ovarian function (Simoni and Casarini, 2014). Additionally, Johnson et al.'s recent research explored the epigenetic regulation of POI-associated genes, revealing irregular DNA methylation patterns (Di-Battista et al., 2023). This sheds light on potential epigenetic mechanisms contributing to POI’s progression. Furthermore, a mouse study utilizing transcriptome sequencing revealed that the decreased mRNA and protein expression levels may contribute to an increase in N6-methyladenosine, potentially elevating the risk of POI-related complications (Ding et al., 2018). These epigenetic insights offer a fresh outlook on how gene expression disturbances might underlie POI’s origins. As ongoing research continues to unveil the intricate genetic aspects of POI, there is promising potential for advancing diagnostics, treatment, and management strategies for individuals affected by this condition. Recognizing the significant variability in gene expression patterns among different ethnic groups (Ishizuka, 2021), it is crucial to delve into specific populations for a more comprehensive understanding. With this consideration, this article narrows its focus to the Chinese population, acknowledging the importance of recognizing potential ethnic-specific factors that could influence the development of POI.

The aim of this study was to explore the physiological significance of ovarian dysfunction in individuals diagnosed with POI using peripheral blood transcriptome sequencing. Spontaneous POI cases were meticulously selected, and healthy female subjects were matched 1:1 from clinical settings. Transcriptome gene sequencing was employed to characterize the functional attributes and potential roles of differentially expressed genes in peripheral blood samples. This research endeavor provides a valuable opportunity to systematically explore the genetic landscape of POI, enhancing our ability to identify relevant genetic factors. Understanding the intricate interplay between genes and ovarian function in POI is crucial for effectively managing and potentially improving ovarian failure.

Premature ovarian insufficiency occurs when there is a premature depletion of oocytes, resulting in a decline in ovarian activity before the age of 40 (Takahashi et al., 2021). This decline is often preceded by a decrease in the number of residual follicles and a reduction in ovarian reserve capacity (Goldman et al., 2017). Therefore, a decrease in ovarian reserve capacity serves as a precursor to the development of POI. The causes of POI are diverse and can include genetic abnormalities, metabolic disorders, autoimmune factors, and infections (Jin et al., 2012). However, approximately 50% of cases have unclear etiology, emphasizing the need for further research in this area.

Revealing the gene expression profiles and interaction networks of different cells, tissues, or organs under various conditions, and further studying the impact of genomic variation on gene expression regulation have emerged as key areas of interest (Przybyla and Gilbert, 2022). The transcription process of genes serves as the initial stage of gene expression and a critical component of gene expression regulation (Jin et al., 2012). This aspect of research plays a significant role in understanding the etiology and pathogenesis of diseases. The exploration of differential gene expression between individuals with POI and those with normal ovarian function opens a window into the molecular underpinnings of this complex condition (Yang et al., 2021).

In this study, the focus was directed toward identifying genes that exhibit altered expression patterns in women with POI compared to their normal counterparts. The results revealed a compelling disparity in gene expression levels, with 10 genes displaying upregulation and 29 genes exhibiting downregulation in the POI group. This significant observation not only highlights potential biomarkers for the condition but also hints at the intricate molecular changes that may contribute to POI pathogenesis.

Among the 39 differentially expressed genes in POI, their functions appear to be closely related to promoting cell proliferation and inhibiting cell apoptosis, suggesting their potential involvement in various stages of ovarian function. Gene set enrichment analysis unveiled significant enrichment in cellular components and molecular function. In term of cellular components, the differentially expressed genes were notably enriched in the haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex and hemoglobin complex. The molecular function analysis revealed significant enrichment in haptoglobin binding and oxygen carrier activity. Haptoglobin (Hp) is a glycoprotein found in blood plasma that binds to free hemoglobin (Hb). It plays a critical role in tissue protection and the prevention of oxidative damage (di Masi et al., 2020). Elevated serum levels of haptoglobin are often observed in response to stress conditions, such as myocardial infarction, tumor, inflammation, trauma and infection, and after the application of certain hormones, including corticosteroids and androgens (Naryzhny et al., 2021). The serum level is known to be associated with the severity and prognosis of these conditions (Naryzhny and Legina, 2021). The human ovary is one of the most susceptible organs to stress damage, with the consequent occurrence of ovarian dysfunction manifested by POI or other ovarian diseases (Petríková and Lazúrová, 2012). In POI patients, causes are related on the presence of either lymphocytic oophoritis, or other inflammation disorders (Nelson, 2009b; Gleicher et al., 2015). Furthermore, through KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, we observed that the differentially expressed genes were enriched in the biological pathway “proteoglycans in cancer”. Proteoglycans (PGs) are a group of glycoconjugates consisting of a core protein and covalently linked aminoglycans (Iozzo and Schaefer, 2015). They play essential roles in cell membranes, basement membranes, and particularly the extracellular matrix, and are closely associated with the tissue cell structure and function (Iozzo and Sanderson, 2011; Schaefer et al., 2017). Previous studies have demonstrated that proteoglycans, as amino sugars found in all tissues, exhibit complex structures and functions, including cell proliferation, migration and adhesion. PGs are important components of the matrix during follicular development, and gonadotropins increase the expression of PG-M during ovulation (Watson et al., 2012). It is hypothesized that the proteoglycan signaling pathway may be involved in altered biological behavior of endometrial cells, follicle development, and ovarian granulosa cell proliferation in POI.

In our study, we employed the support vector machine algorithm with 5-fold cross-validation to construct a classification model. By integrating clinical information with the expression levels of the top five differentially expressed genes (SLC25A39, CNIH3, PDZK1IP1, SHISA4, and LOC389834), we investigated their expression patterns and clinical significance in POI. SLC25A39 is known to play a role in mitochondrial transport and metabolism (Ruprecht and Kunji, 2020). It was reported that mitochondrial dysfunction were associated with some rare cases of POI, and manipulation of mitochondrial function represents an important therapeutic target for the treatment or prevention of POI (Tiosano et al., 2019). Therefore, the gene product of SLC25A39 plays a pivotal role in mitochondrial function by facilitating the transport of glutathione into mitochondria, which is essential for antioxidant defense and maintaining cellular redox balance (Slabbaert et al., 2016). Dysfunction in this transport mechanism, regulated by AFG3L2 and iron, may compromise mitochondrial health (Shi et al., 2024), resulting in oxidative stress within oocytes and potentially contributing to the development of POI. This underscores the significance of SLC25A39 in preserving oocyte quality and sustaining cellular energy metabolism critical for fertility. CNIH3, a gene associated with protein binding and modulation of ion channel activities (Shanks et al., 2014), shows differential expression in POI patients. While the primary function of the CNIH3 gene involves regulating AMPA receptor activity in the brain, its potential indirect influence on POI warrants consideration. Disruptions in CNIH3 signaling pathways may impact the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, potentially leading to metabolic or oxidative stress (Challenor et al., 2015), both of which are implicated in the decline of oocyte quality and the onset of POI. However, direct evidence linking CNIH3 to POI remains limited, necessitating further research to elucidate the gene’s potential role in ovarian function and the development of POI. PDZK1IP1, also known as PAR3, is intriguing due to its role in cell polarity and cytoskeletal organization (Buckley and St Johnston, 2022). The PDZK1IP1 gene encodes a protein involved in cellular signaling pathways, particularly in organizing the cytoskeleton and mediating cell-cell interactions (Ikeno et al., 2019). Although the direct association between PDZK1IP1 and POI requires further investigation, its role in cellular processes suggests a potential involvement in maintaining ovarian function. Considering the critical role of the cytoskeleton in oocyte development and follicular maturation, any disruption due to PDZK1IP1 dysfunction could impair these processes, contributing to POI development. Additionally, PDZK1IP1’s involvement in signaling cascades related to stress response suggests that variations in this gene could impact ovarian reserve and the response to gonadotropins (Carnero, 2012), potentially influencing POI etiology. Further research is needed to elucidate the precise role of PDZK1IP1 in POI pathogenesis. SHISA4, a gene associated with cell adhesion and migration (Pei and Grishin, 2012), exhibits differential expression in the context of POI. The SHISA4 gene participates in cell differentiation and developmental processes, with its protein products regulating cell signaling pathways. This involvement in cell development hints at a potential influence on ovarian function. Since normal oocyte development and follicular maturation are vital for maintaining ovarian reserve and fertility, SHISA4 alleles affecting these processes could be involved in the development of POI. Furthermore, if SHISA4 influences signaling pathways governing oocyte growth or response to hormonal cues, it may indirectly contribute to POI. Further investigation is warranted to elucidate the precise role of SHISA4 in POI pathogenesis. LOC389834, a long non-coding RNA, emerges as a potential player in POI due to its differential expression. Long non-coding RNAs have gained attention for their regulatory roles in gene expression (Xiao and Xu, 2009). Variants within gene loci, such as LOC389834, may harbor regulatory elements or unannotated genes that influence complex traits like POI. It is conceivable that variants within LOC389834 could indirectly impact the risk of developing POI. If a gene variant within LOC389834 modulates the expression or function of genes pivotal to ovarian health—such as those involved in follicular development, hormone regulation, or cellular stress responses—it could potentially contribute to the etiology of POI. Further investigation into the functional significance of LOC389834 variants is necessary to ascertain their role in POI pathogenesis.

In the pursuit of enhancing the classification of POI, our study harnessed the potential of both gene expression profiles and hormone levels. The effectiveness of this model was quantified through the generation of a receiver operating characteristic curve, which revealed an encouraging area under the curve value of 0.83. This initial step showcased the potential of gene expression profiles to aid in the accurate classification of POI. To further refine this classification approach, we identified a set of top five differentially expressed genes—SLC25A39, CNIH3, PDZK1IP1, SHISA4, and LOC389834. Incorporating these genes into the classification model led to a notable improvement, as the AUC value rose to 0.88. These findings underscore the significance of these specific genes in characterizing the genetic basis of POI and their potential to serve as valuable biomarkers for more precise disease classification. This work not only advances our understanding of the complex interplay between genetics and hormones in POI but also holds promise for improved diagnostic precision and individualized management strategies for individuals affected by this condition.

In synopsis, this study aimed to delve into the transcriptomic profile of POI, shedding light on the gene expression alterations underpinning this condition. The research underscores the potential significance of the identified genes in elucidating the genetic basis of POI. Importantly, these genes hold promise as valuable biomarkers, potentially enhancing the accuracy of disease classification. By thoroughly exploring the transcriptomic landscape of POI, this study brings us closer to unraveling the intricate molecular mechanisms behind this condition and opens avenues for more precise diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Despite the potential for future research to clarify the functional roles of these genes and their possible use as therapeutic targets, there are significant limitations to the current study that must be recognized. There is a pressing need for more robust efforts to thoroughly understand the genetic underpinnings of POI. Additionally, upcoming studies should employ comprehensive multi-omics strategies and wider-ranging analyses to identify new biomarkers, pathways, and regulatory networks implicated in POI. This would shed light on the complex interactions between genetic, epigenetic, and environmental determinants in the development of the disease. To substantiate the results concerning the differential expression of genes observed in this research, it is essential to conduct experimental validations and to undertake larger-scale investigations with increased sample sizes.

In summary, the identified genes could play a crucial role in characterizing the genetic foundation of POI, potentially serving as valuable biomarkers for enhancing disease classification accuracy.