Abstract
N-acyl amides (NAAs) are a class of lipids that consist of an acyl group N-linked to an amino acid, neurotransmitter, taurine or ethanolamide group (N-acylethanolamines or NAEs) and include some endocannabinoids (eCB) such as anandamide. These lipids are synthesized in a wide variety of organisms and in multiple cell types, including neurons. NAEs are involved in numerous cellular and physiological processes and their concentrations are elevated in response to ischemia and physical trauma to play a role in neuroprotection. The neuroprotective properties of eCB NAEs make the protein targets of these compounds attractive targets for clinical intervention for a variety of conditions. The most promising of these targets include cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1), cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2), fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), N-acylethanolamine acid amidase (NAAA), and N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD). Further characterization of these targets in a more contemporary model system of neurodegeneration and neuroprotection will allow us to fully describe their role and mechanism of action in neuroprotection against oxidative stress leading to better utilization in the clinical setting. Human stem cell-derived or human neural progenitor cell-derived cells, such as ReN cells, have become more utilized for the study of human neuronal development and neurodegenerative diseases. ReN cells can be easily differentiated thereby circumventing the need for using transformed cell lines and primary neurons as cell model systems. In this study, we determined whether ReN cells, a superior cell model system for studying neurodevelopment, differentiation, and neuroprotection, express proteins involved in canonical eCB NAE signaling and whether oxidative stress can induce their expression. We determined that sublethal oxidative stress upregulates the expression of all eCB proteins tested. In addition, we determined that oxidative stress increases the nuclear localization of FAAH, and to a lesser extent, NAAA and NAPE-PLD. This study is a first step toward determining how oxidative stress affects CB1, CB2, FAAH, NAAA, and NAPE-PLD expression and their potential defense against oxidative stress. As such, our data is important for further determining the role of eCB metabolizing proteins and eCB receptors against oxidative stress.
Introduction
There is ample evidence demonstrating the cytoprotective effects of endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs) and non-eCB N-acylethanolamides (NAEs). For example, N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE) and NAE synthesis is upregulated in response to multiple chemical and traumatic environmental insults, underscoring their role in cytoprotection (Natarajan et al., 1986; , , ; Moesgaard et al., 1999, 2000; ; Schabitz et al., 2002; ).
eCBs have been shown to play a role in alleviating multiple diseases including cardiovascular disease (; Steffens et al., 2005), liver dysfunction (; Teixeira-Clerc et al., 2006; ; ), intestinal inflammation (; Massa et al., 2004), peripheral and neuropathic pain (Siegling et al., 2001; ; Zhang et al., 2003), and neurodegeneration (Skaper et al., 1996; ; Marsicano et al., 2003; ; Van der Stelt and DiMarzo, 2005; Shouman et al., 2006; Yiangou et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2007).
The neuroprotective NAE, anandamide or arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA), and the non-NAE endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG), are the prototypical eCBs as they can bind to and activate cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) (; Vogel et al., 1993). In addition to CB1, 2-AG can also activate cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2). The NAE, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), functions as a decoy eCB NAE to inhibit the degradation of AEA by the NAE-degrading enzyme, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) (; Smart et al., 2002). Other proteins involved in eCB signaling include monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the saturated NAE degrading enzyme N-acylethanolamide acid amidase (NAAA) and the NAE synthesizing enzyme N-acylethanolamide specific phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) (Matsuda et al., 1990; ; Munro et al., 1993; ; Ueda et al., 2000; Petersen et al., 2009).
Several studies have determined that cannabinoid compounds, or overexpression of components of the endocannabinoid system, can protect cells from oxidative stress (). Much less is known, however, about whether oxidative stress can alter the expression and activity of endocannabinoid proteins. Superoxide anion can induce the expression of CB1 (Wang et al., 2014). CB1 has been sown to be upregulated in Parkinson’s Disease patients and postmortem brain from AD patients (; ), both diseases where oxidative stress plays an important pathophysiological role. Some redox-sensitive transcription factors, such as AP-1, Nrf2, NFκB, and STATs, can upregulate the expression of proteins involved in eCB signaling, including CB1 and FAAH (Maccarrone et al., 2003a,b; ; ; ; ) although most of these effects were not experimentally observed under oxidative stress conditions.
Human stem cell-derived or human neural progenitor cell-derived cells, such as ReN cells, are becoming more commonly used for the study of human neuronal development and neurodegenerative diseases. These cells can be kept in an undifferentiated proliferative state, and they can easily be differentiated by removing two growth factors from the culture media. This quality circumvents the need for isolating primary neurons from brain tissue and it allows for a considerable amount of cellular material that can be used in several large experiments.
Here, we determined whether chemical induction of oxidative stress in ReN cells leads to alteration, particularly upregulation of eCB protein expression. We determined that ReN cells express CB1, CB2, FAAH, NAAA, and NAPE-PLD and that oxidative stress leads to an increase in the immunoreactivity of these proteins. As 2-AG is not an NAE eCB, and the 2-AG degrading MAGL does not degrade NAE eCBS, MAGL was not included in this study. These results suggest that oxidative stress may elicit the upregulation of eCB proteins as part of their response to oxidative damage.
Materials and methods
Cell culture and treatments
Human neural precursor-derived ReN cells were obtained from Millipore (Millipore-Sigma, Burlington, MA, United States) and were cultured on Matrigel® in ReN neural stem cell (NSC) maintenance media (Millipore-Sigma) supplemented with 10 ng/ml EGF (Gibco/ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, United States) and 10 ng/ml bFGF (Gibco). Cells were grown on Matrigel® -coated surfaces in an undifferentiated state in the presence of bFGF and EGF until ready for use in experiments. ReN cells were differentiated by maintaining cells in ReN NSC maintenance media without EGF of bFGF for at least 7 days and up to 14 days. ReN cells on coverslips were treated with tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBHP) (Acros Organics, Geel, Belgium) at a concentration of 2 or 10 μM overnight (16–20 h) prior to fixation with 4% PFA and subsequent immunocytochemistry.
Antibodies, immunocytochemistry, and immunofluorescence
Rabbit anti CB1 (ab23703), CB2 (ab3561), FAAH (ab128917), and rabbit and mouse anti-NAPE-PLD (ab246951 and ab119259) were purchased from Abcam. NAAA antibodies were purchased from EzBiolab (Westfield, IN, United States). Antibodies used in this study except for NAAA have been characterized and used by others (Lowin et al., 2015; ). Immunocytochemistry and immunofluorescence were conducted as described elsewhere (). In brief, ReN cells were grown on Matrigel coated 12 mm glass coverslips for 7–10 days to a density of ≤75% confluence. Fixation of cells was carried out using 4% paraformaldehyde for 15 min followed by washing with PBS. Primary antibody incubation was carried out at 4°C overnight. After washing with PBS, fluorescent Alexa488 or Alexa594-labeled goat anti-rabbit or goat anti-mouse IgG secondary antibody (Invitrogen) diluted in incubation solution (1:1,000) was applied to cells for 1 h at room temperature followed by 3 washes in PBS. Coverslips were mounted onto glass slides with Aqua polymount (Polysciences, Warrington, PA, United States) and stored at 4°C overnight. Image acquisition was conducted with a Leica TCS SP5 X white light laser scanning confocal microscope (Leica, Buffalo Grove, IL, United States) using 20X, 40X, or 63X objectives. LAS-X software was used to collect 8 or 16-bit TIFF images.
Western blots were carried out using a standard SDS-PAGE mini gel system (ThermoFisher-Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, United States) with 7% Bis-Tris SDS-PAGE gels and nitrocellulose membranes. Ponceau-S dye was used to stain membranes for relative total protein measurement used for normalization. Proteins were visualized using Luminata Forte chemiluminescent solution (Millipore-Sigma). Membranes were visualized using a G:box gel/membrane imaging system (Syngene, Bangalore, India).
Image analysis
Brightfield images were visualized and acquired using a Leica DMIL inverted objective microscope under phase contrast settings. Resulting brightfield images were used to determine cell number and neurite density in Image J FIJI software (NIH; free open source). Neurite density was determined by converting images to a binary (black and white) image and tracing lines from the top to the bottom of the image being careful to avoid soma. The number of peaks caused by intersecting a line were then counted and graphed. Microfluorimetric analysis was conducted on TIFF images using Image-J FIJI. To determine levels of immunoreactivity in images, images were converted to maximum intensity projections and were then thresholded to exclude background signal and to identify regions where mean fluorescence intensity, fluorescence area, and fluorescence integrated density could be determined. Cell (nuclear) counts were either calculated using manual counts or by using the 3D Cell Counter setting. Colocalization analysis was done in Image J using the Coloc2 function which compares the intensity of each pixel from one channel of a thresholded image to the intensity of each pixel in another channel of a thresholded image. Quantitative data is presented as a Pearson’s, Spearman’s, or Mander’s coefficient (R2 value). Data was exported into Microsoft Excel and graphed. Average fluorescence intensity measurements were done using threshold settings established for maximum intensity projection images. Densitometric analysis of Western blot images was carried out by measuring average intensity and integrated density of bands using Image-J FIJI. Immunoblot data was normalized to Ponceau-S total protein.
Groups and statistics
For all microfluorimetry experiments, five (5) microscope fields per treatment group from three different experiments were analyzed for CB1, CB2, FAAH, NAAA, and NAPE-PLD. For Western blots, densitometry was carried out on results from three separate experiments. Treatment groups included untreated control, 2 or 10 μM tBHP. An F-test was conducted in Excel between each treatment group and the untreated control group to determine which type of T-test should be used for group comparisons–T-test with equal or unequal variance. The mean fluorescence intensity from each treatment group was separately compared to the mean fluorescence intensity of the untreated control group using a two-sample T-test with either equal or unequal variances. Comparison between more than two groups was done in GraphPad Prism® software using a one-way ANOVA test with Bonferroni post-hoc analysis to determine which groups are different from controls.
Results
Establishing sublethal oxidative stress conditions in ReN cells
Previous oxidative stress and neuroprotection studies have determined that endocannabinoids can protect against a highly lethal concentration of tBHP up to 25 μM (). To establish the adequate concentration of tBHP to elicit a much milder level of oxidative stress (sublethal oxidative stress), we tested two tBHP concentrations (2 and 10 μM) that we had previously established to induced sublethal oxidative stress in a murine hippocampal cell line, HT-22 (). We exposed ReN cells to 2 and 10 μM tBHP (and vehicle control) for 24 h and, after fixing, we acquired images of cells with a light microscope using phase contrast filters (Figure 1A).
FIGURE 1
Exposure of cells to 2 μM tBHP led to a 16% reduction in the number of cells (636 ± 25 cells vs. 757 ± 60 cells) while 10 μM led to a 52% reduction in the average cell number (Figure 1B). The remaining attached cells exposed to either 2 or 10 μM tBHP had normal size and cellular morphology that suggested that they were healthy. Cells exposed to 10 μM tBHP tended to exhibit larger nuclei. We measured the number of neurites that intersected a line drawn across images of cells. The cells exposed to 2 μM tBHP had a higher number of neurites (45% increase) on average than cells from the control condition. The cells exposed to 10 μM tBHP exhibited no change in the number of intersecting neuritis (Figure 1C). Together, these data suggest that the milder oxidative stress (2 μM tBHP) causes slight cell loss but an increase in the density of neurites while the higher level of oxidative stress (10 μM tBHP) led to a greater degree of cell loss but a lower density of neurites. We conclude that 2 and 10 μM are adequate concentrations of tBHP to determine the effect of oxidative stress on eCB protein expression.
Immunofluorescent detection of cannabinoid receptor type 1 and cannabinoid receptor type 2 in ReN cells under conditions of oxidative stress
CB1 has been shown to be important for neuronal development, differentiation, neurotransmission, and viability (, ). Other studies on CB1 and oxidative stress have shown that CB1 activation can lead to neuroprotection (Skaper et al., 1996; ). ReN cells express CB1 in the soma and neurites and treatment with tBHP to induce sublethal oxidative stress had no effect on CB1 immunoreactivity by microscopic methods (IR; fluorescence integrated density) (Figures 2A,B). However, immunoblotting revealed a 2.8-fold increase in CB1 following 10 μM tBHP treatment (Figures 2C,D). Slight inconsistencies between the immunofluorescence and Western blot data are likely due to the native vs. denatured form of the target protein, respectively. We consider trends in the same direction (up or down) as corroborating results.
FIGURE 2
There has been considerable debate over recent decades as to whether CB2 is expressed in neurons or only in non-neuronal cells such as glia (Van Sickle et al., 2005; Onaivi et al., 2006; ), because of this uncertainty we investigated whether ReN cells express CB2. ReN cells express CB2 in both the soma and the neurites (Figure 3A). Treatment with tBHP to induce sublethal oxidative stress had no significant effect on CB2 expression by microscopy/immunofluorescence methods, but trended toward an increase in fluorescence integrated density (Figures 3A,B). Western blotting revealed that 2 μM tBHP led to a 40% decrease in CB2 while exposure to 10 μM tBHP led to a 45% increase in CB2 expression in ReN cells (Figures 3C,D), suggesting that CB2 gene expression is regulated by oxidative stress.
FIGURE 3
Immunofluorescent detection of fatty acid amide hydrolase in ReN cells under conditions of oxidative stress
ReN cells express FAAH predominantly in the soma, especially the nucleus (Figure 4). Since FAAH is important for the regulation of intracellular NAE levels, changes in its expression level may be important for the amplitude and duration of eCB action. Exposure of ReN cells to tBHP led to an increase in FAAH immunoreactivity (Figures 4A,B), suggesting that eCB degradation by FAAH may be increased and therefore less available for signaling at CB1 or CB2 receptors. FAAH is expressed at high levels in the nuclear envelope or nucleus as determined by immunofluorescence (Figure 4A). Others have observed this nuclear localization as well (). Immunoblotting revealed that exposure to 10 μM tBHP led to a 1.5-fold increase in FAAH expression (Figures 4C,D).
FIGURE 4
To determine if oxidative stress selectively alters the nuclear localization of FAAH, we carried out colocalization analysis between FAAH immunoreactivity and DAPI nuclear stain fluorescence. We reasoned that if FAAH was expressed on the nuclear envelope, there would likely not be much colocalization. However, if FAAH was expressed inside the nucleus, there should be some colocalization with the DAPI DNA stain if the proximity between the two is within a few hundred nanometers. We define no colocalization as an R2 value below 0.15, weak colocalization as an R2 value between 0.16 and 0.25, moderate colocalization as an R2 value between 0.26 and 0.50 and strong colocalization as an R2 value of ≥0.51.
Exposure of cells to 2 μM tBHP led to a 68% (1.7-fold) increase in FAAH-DAPI colocalization (Pearson’s correlation coefficient R2 = 0.17 ± 0.06 for the untreated control vs. 0.29 ± 0.04 for 2 μM tBHP) (Figures 4E,F). Exposure of cells to 10 μM tBHP led to a 3.6-fold increase in FAAH-DAPI colocalization compared to untreated controls and 2.1-fold increase in FAAH-DAPI colocalization compared to 2 μM tBHP (Pearson’s correlation coefficient R2 = 0.17 ± 0.06 for the untreated control vs. 0.29 ± 0.04 for 2 μM tBHP vs. 0.63 ± 0.09 for 10 μM tBHP).
Because 10 μM tBHP exposure caused some cell death (Figure 1B), remaining nuclei may exhibit higher FAAH-DAPI co-localization due to nuclear condensation from oxidative damage. We measured the average nuclear area and determined that ReN cells exposed to 10 μM tBHP had a larger than average nucleus compared to nuclei from untreated and 2 μM tBHP-treated ReN cells. This suggests that the increase in FAAH-DAPI colocalization is not due to nuclear condensation but is due to actual colocalization of FAAH and DAPI (DNA).
Immunofluorescent detection of N-acylethanolamine acid amidase in ReN cells under conditions of oxidative stress
ReN cells express NAAA in the soma (non-nuclear and nuclear) and neurites (Figures 5A,B). The exposure of ReN cells to 2 μM tBHP led to a 30% increase in NAAA immunoreactivity and a return to control levels at a tBHP concentration of 10 μM (Figure 5B). Western blot analyses showed that 2 μM tBHP had no effect on NAAA expression while 10 μM caused a 2.6-fold increase in NAAA expression (Figures 5C,D). This suggests that eCB degradation by NAAA is induced by oxidative stress.
FIGURE 5
To determine if oxidative stress selectively alters nuclear NAAA, we carried out colocalization analysis between NAAA IR and DAPI nuclear stain fluorescence (Figures 5E,F). NAAA did not colocalize with DAPI (R2 = 0.042) like FAAH, suggesting that apparent nuclear localization of NAAA may be due to NAAA expression in the nuclear envelope and not inside the nucleus. Exposure of ReN cells to 2 μM tBHP led to a 4.2-fold increase in NAAA-DAPI colocalization compared to untreated controls (Pearson’s correlation coefficient R2 = 0.18 ± 0.024 for 2 μM tBHP vs. 0.042 ± 0.028 for the untreated controls) (Figures 5E,F). Despite this multi-fold increase, it is still considered a weak level of colocalization. Exposure of cells to 10 μM tBHP led to a reversal in NAAA-DAPI colocalization compared to 2 μM tBHP (Pearson’s correlation coefficient R2 = < 0.00001 ± 0.07 for 10 μM tBHP vs. 0.18 ± 0.024 for 2 μM tBHP and 0.042 ± 0.028 for untreated) and failed to colocalize at all with DAPI. Together, these results suggest that, unlike FAAH, NAAA subcellular localization is not within the nucleus and the increase in NAAA colocalization with DAPI due to 2 μM tBHP is very low.
Immunofluorescent detection of N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D in ReN cells under conditions of oxidative stress
N-acyl phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) immunoreactivity in ReN cells is increased by 18% in response to tBHP exposure, but failed to reach statistical significance (Figures 6A,B). NAPE-PLD immunoreactivity was predominately located in the soma and nucleus. Western blot analysis, however, revealed that exposure of ReN cells to 10 μM tBHP led to a 2.4-fold increase in NAPE-PLD expression (Figures 6C,D). Colocalization analysis determined whether NAPE-PLD was located in the nucleus of ReN cells. Colocalization analysis revealed that in untreated cells and cells treated with low concentration of tBHP (2 μM tBHP), there is little colocalization between NAPE-PLD and DAPI (Pearson’s R value < 0.20) (Figures 6E,F) Cells treated with a higher tBHP concentration (10 μM tBHP), however, showed slightly higher colocalization (Pearson’s R2 = 0.20 for 10 μM tBHP vs. 0.13 for untreated controls) (Figures 6E,F). This suggests that NAPE-PLD is not localized within the nucleus, and oxidative stress only slightly increase its nuclear localization.
FIGURE 6
Discussion
In this study, we determined whether oxidative stress induced the expression of eCB proteins by using NPC derived neuronal model of neuronal differentiation, neurodegeneration, and neuroprotection. Human ReN cells may be more relevant for the in vitro study human diseases than primary mouse or rat cell models. We determined that ReN cells express the NAE eCB proteins CB1, CB2, NAPE-PLD, FAAH, and NAAA and that oxidative stress leads to an increase in their immunoreactivity. Other proteins involved in eCB signaling, such as MAGL and diacylglycerol kinase A (DAGK), were excluded from this study as they are not involved in NAE eCB signaling. To our knowledge, there are no studies that have determined whether oxidative stresses can upregulate the expression of NAPE-PLD in neuronal cells. Overall, these results identify potential molecular targets for pharmacological interventions against neurodegenerative diseases where oxidative stress and damage may play a major role.
There is evidence that redox-sensitive transcription factors can regulate the expression of CB1, CB2, and FAAH genes. T cell activation leads to an upregulation in CB1 expression via AP-1, NFκB, and NFAT () and AP-1 activation in hippocampal cells upregulated CB1 expression (). In kidney cells, CB1 upregulation by indoxyl sulfate occurs via ATF3/c-Jun. The CB2 gene promoter contains Nrf2 (Nfe2l2) sites that are critical for CB2 expression in microglia (). Furthermore, oxidative stress upregulates the expression of CB1 and CB2, and downregulates the expression of FAAH, in RPE cells (Wei et al., 2009). These studies, however, did not utilize a model for oxidative stress.
Using immunofluorescence to detect NAE signaling proteins, it was possible to detect FAAH, NAAA, and NAPE-PLD proteins in or around the nucleus. This nuclear localization may indicate that NAE synthesis and degradation near the nucleus may affect nuclear signaling and/or activation of lipid-interacting transcription factors (i.e., PPARα and PPARγ). More research in this area is needed, however, to determine whether this is the case.
We observe some differences in the quantitative changes in proteins between data from immunofluorescence and Western blot densitometry analyses. While it is ideal to see a similar degree of change in protein expression between the two methods, the methods differ in both the type of antibody used (i.e., monoclonal vs. polyclonal) and/or structural nature of the protein epitope (native structure in ICC/IF and denatured structure in Western blotting). As a result, one might expect some differences in the magnitude of change between two different methods. Also, the measurement of the signal between fluorescence (in IF) and chemiluminescence (in Westerns) is different as the former exhibits a curvilinear relationship and the later a linear relationship between the measured signal and actual protein concentration. Our view, therefore, is that if the overall signal between the IF and Western blotting goes in the same direction (i.e., up or down) resulting from one of the two tBHP concentrations, then the methods satisfactorily corroborate one another, especially given the different nature of the two methods.
These data provide relevant information about both cannabinoid and non-cannabinoid proteins in ReN cells. Several diseases are beginning trials for or is already utilizing stem cells transplantation strategies as a therapy including retinal degeneration, ischemic stroke and myocardial infarction (; Mitreèiæ et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2022). Since the endocannabinoid system is known to be involved in early cellular and tissue development and cell fate, better understanding the role of eCB proteins, such as CB1, CB2, FAAH, and others, may be important in establishing better cell transplant outcomes.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
PK conceived and designed the experiments. RD, SR, AP, and CH performed the experiments. RD and PK wrote the manuscript. All authors analyzed the data, edited and reviewed the manuscript, and approved the submitted version.
Funding
This research was supported in part by grants from the National Institute on Aging/National Eye Institute [EY030747 (3R01EY030747-02S2) and EY031248 (3R01EY031248-02S1)], the National Center for Research Resources, and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (RR027093) of the National Institutes of Health (PK). Additional support by the Felix and Carmen Sabates Missouri Endowed Chair in Vision Research, a Challenge Grant from Research to Prevent Blindness, and the Vision Research Foundation of Kansas City is gratefully acknowledged.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledged the support of Megan Florance. We also thank Margaret, Richard, and Sara Koulen for generous support and encouragement.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Author disclaimer
The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
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Summary
Keywords
cannabinoid, neurons, neuroprotection, N-acylethanolamide, oxidative stress, transcription factor
Citation
Duncan RS, Riordan SM, Hall CW, Payne AJ, Chapman KD and Koulen P (2022) N-acylethanolamide metabolizing enzymes are upregulated in human neural progenitor-derived neurons exposed to sub-lethal oxidative stress. Front. Cell. Neurosci. 16:902278. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2022.902278
Received
23 March 2022
Accepted
05 July 2022
Published
08 August 2022
Volume
16 - 2022
Edited by
Katarzyna Starowicz, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences (IF PAS), Poland
Reviewed by
Antonietta Bernardo, National Institute of Health (ISS), Italy; Beata Bystrowska, University Medical College, Poland
Updates
Copyright
© 2022 Duncan, Riordan, Hall, Payne, Chapman and Koulen.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Peter Koulen, koulenp@umkc.edu
This article was submitted to Non-Neuronal Cells, a section of the journal Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
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