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        <title>Frontiers in Cognition | Learning and Cognitive Development section | New and Recent Articles</title>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cognition/sections/learning-and-cognitive-development</link>
        <description>RSS Feed for Learning and Cognitive Development section in the Frontiers in Cognition journal | New and Recent Articles</description>
        <language>en-us</language>
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        <pubDate>2026-05-12T20:23:36.250+00:00</pubDate>
        <ttl>60</ttl>
        <item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2026.1727422</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2026.1727422</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Beyond the left-right brain divide: a framework for dual-domain cognitive fluency]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-07T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Hypothesis and Theory</category>
        <author>Don A. Affognon</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Longstanding distinctions between “verbal” and “mathematical” minds continue to shape educational assessment, curriculum design, and how learners are categorized by perceived cognitive strengths. Yet plenty of evidence from psychology and cognitive neuroscience points to a more unified model of intelligence that refutes the false dichotomy. In this article, I propose dual-domain cognitive fluency (DDCF) as a way to describe how the human mind can move fluidly between words and numbers and derive meaning from both. Building on research in symbolic cognition, executive function, and cognitive flexibility, this article identifies three dimensions: symbolic translation between modalities, cognitive flexibility across task demands, and layered reasoning, which integrates propositional logic with linguistic abstraction. DDCF captures the symbolic agility now required in knowledge-based environments where the integration of representational systems matters more than isolated domain expertise. Examples range from data storytelling in journalism to algebraic modeling in the social sciences—contexts in which verbal and quantitative reasoning operate in tandem. These insights matter for pedagogy, curriculum design, and the evolving demands of data-intensive workplaces. Far from a niche ability, dual-domain fluency reflects a generalizable cognitive capacity that existing models of intelligence have struggled to measure, reward, or systematically support.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2026.1664983</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2026.1664983</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Assessing the stability of tactical learning in youth footballers: the contribution of a metacognitive double-pass method]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-05T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Dimitri Acoumambo</author><author>Bachir Zoudji</author><author>Hatem Belhouchet</author>
        <description><![CDATA[The stability of tactical learning in youth football remains insfficiently explored. This study examined players' explicit recognition of taught tactical content and the short-term stability of these judgements using a metacognitive double-pass (DP) method. A total of 225 youth footballers (U-13, U-15, U-18; n = 75 per group) completed both a single-pass (SP) and a delayed double-pass DP assessment across 40 standardized animated tactical scenarios. Results revealed a clear decline from SP to DP, suggesting overestimation in immediate (SP) judgements. Although stability improved with age, it did not approach high declarative integration, even in U-18s. These findings support the use of DP method as a conservative indicator of declarative accessibility and underline the importance of instruction that fosters guided verbalisation, reflective practice, and metacognitive monitoring. The double-pass approch thus appears to be a valuable tool for refining formative assessment in sport contexts.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2025.1565625</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2025.1565625</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Chronological age and biological maturity are separately positively associated with inhibitory control and working memory in boys and girls]]></title>
        <pubdate>2025-12-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Luke M. Gilbert</author><author>Ryan A. Williams</author><author>John G. Morris</author><author>Anna Dunn</author><author>Ruth Boat</author><author>Karah J. Dring</author><author>Mary E. Nevill</author><author>Simon B. Cooper</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Executive function is typically considered from a chronological age perspective, despite the influence of biological maturity on executive function development. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of chronological age and biological maturity on inhibitory control and working memory, separately in boys and girls (due to sex differences in biological maturation). The study employed a cross-sectional design and, following familiarization, 736 (400 female) young people (12.3 ± 1.3 years) completed tests of cognitive function on two separate occasions. Participants completed the Stroop test to measure inhibitory control and the Sternberg paradigm to measure working memory. Chronological age and biological maturity were calculated for each participant. Linear regression models were performed separately for boys and girls. Two models were fit for each test and level of executive function: a chronological age model (executive function x chronological age) and a biological maturity model (executive function x biological maturity). Higher chronological age and biological maturity were associated with superior performance on inhibitory control and working memory tests. In boys, the biological maturity models were a significantly better fit (vs. chronological age), whilst in girls, the chronological age models were a better fit (vs. biological maturity). This study provides novel evidence that biological maturity is associated with inhibitory control and working memory. Emphasizing that future investigations into inhibitory control and working memory in young people should consider biological maturity, especially in boys.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2025.1493709</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2025.1493709</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Brain activity during acquisition of long visuospatial sequences]]></title>
        <pubdate>2025-09-01T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Milena I. Mihovilovic</author><author>Thomas Stephan</author><author>Andreas Straube</author><author>Marianne Dieterich</author><author>Thomas Eggert</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Explicitly acquiring a visuospatial sequence involves various fundamental attentional and processing mechanisms that can be difficult to disentangle. To this end, we performed an fMRI study (n = 34) on the acquisition of visuospatial targets in a delayed imitation paradigm. Task phases alternated between presentation and recall of a 20-target-long sequence. Behavioral data from the recall phase was used to determine encoding progress as a function of time during presentation, with this progress taken as a continuous predictor of BOLD activity. A separate, attention-only task was devised in order to isolate activity related to spatial attention shifts specifically. General linear model analysis using the constructed learning and attention predictors revealed heightened activation for both tasks in bilateral superior parietal lobules (SPL), bilateral V5, and bilateral middle frontal gyri (MFG). Increased response during learning was seen in the SPL and V5, but not MFG. Repeated measures ANOVA indicated significant interactions between region and task, as well as a right-biased tendency in the hemisphere*task interaction. This suggests a role for the SPL and V5 during sequence acquisition that cannot be explained by attention alone.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1495416</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1495416</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Editorial: Guidance of search by long-term and working memory]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-10-02T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Editorial</category>
        <author>Stefan Pollmann</author><author>Thomas Geyer</author><author>Jun Kawahara</author>
        <description></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1324678</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1324678</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Successful generalization of conceptual knowledge after training to remember specific events]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-09-26T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Troy M. Houser</author><author>Anthony Resnick</author><author>Dagmar Zeithamova</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionCategorization involves grouping information to make inferences and support novel decisions. In the laboratory, category learning tasks commonly involve trial-and-error where participants are instructed to classify stimuli and learn through feedback. Here, we tested across two experiments whether people can acquire category knowledge in an incidental manner by associating category members with other information that itself is structured, and how it compares to acquiring category knowledge directly through feedback-based classification training.MethodsSubjects were trained to remember specific associations consisting of cartoon animals paired with animal-specific background scenes. Animals presented on forest vs. mountain scenes were members of two prototype-based categories, but this was not conveyed to the participants. Spontaneous category learning was tested by asking participants to guess habitat (mountains, forests) for old and new cartoon animals without feedback.ResultsWe found that participants spontaneously acquired category knowledge, showing high categorization accuracy for new animals, comparable to a group that underwent a traditional feedback-based classification training with the same stimuli. Strategy analysis showed that the majority of participants in both groups abstracted the central tendency of the categories, albeit a somewhat larger proportion of subjects relied on memory for specific training exemplars after paired-associate learning. Partial evidence was found for the hypothesis that generalized knowledge emerged at the expense of memory for specific animal-scene associations.DiscussionThe findings show that despite the goal to remember specific information that required differentiation of stimuli within categories, subjects can spontaneously acquire category knowledge, generalizable to novel stimuli in a way comparable to traditional supervised classification training. This work provides new insights into how category learning can proceed under more naturalistic demands.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1379896</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1379896</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Genetic background of cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-07-22T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Mini Review</category>
        <author>Antonela Blazekovic</author><author>Kristina Gotovac Jercic</author><author>Sabina Devedija</author><author>Fran Borovecki</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex disorder that is influenced by multiple genetic risk factors. There is a significant heterogeneity in PD presentation, both pathologically and clinically. Some of the most common and important symptoms affecting the patient are cognitive impairment and dementia. However, the genetic and biological basis underlying the differences in cognitive profiles, including the development of dementia in PD, is not yet well understood. Understanding the role of genes in cognitive outcomes is crucial for effective patient counseling and treatment. Research on familial PD has discovered more than 20 genes that can cause the disease. The identified genes responsible for familial cases of PD are LRRK2, PARK7, PINK1, PRKN, or SNCA gene, although there may be other genes that also contribute. Additionally, some of these genes may also play a role in cases that were previously thought to be sporadic. Currently, numerous well-described genes increase the risk of cognitive decline in PD, each with varying levels of penetrance. The aim of this review is to identify the relevant genetic factors that contribute to differences in cognition. We discuss the genes that may affect cognition and the challenges in establishing a clear genetic diagnostic and prognostic assessment. This article aims to demonstrate the complexity of the genetic background of cognition in PD and to present the different types of genotype changes that can impact cognition through various neurobiological mechanisms.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1403749</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1403749</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Contextual cueing—Eye movements in rotated and recombined displays]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-05-10T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Lei Zheng</author><author>Nico Marek</author><author>Natalia Melnik</author><author>Stefan Pollmann</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Contextual cueing leads to improved efficiency in visual search resulting from the extraction of spatial regularities in repeated visual stimuli. Previous research has demonstrated the independent contributions of global configuration and spatial position to contextual cueing. The present study aimed to investigate whether learned spatial configuration or individual locations would elicit fixation patterns resembling those observed in the original displays. We found that search guidance based on either local or global spatial context, by combining distractor locations from two learned displays or rotating displays, kept not only search time facilitation intact, in agreement with previous studies, but also enabled search with less fixations and more direct scan paths to the target. Fixation distribution maps of recombined or rotated displays were more similar to the original displays than random new displays. However, for rotated displays this was only true when the rotation angle was taken into account. Overall, this shows an astonishingly flexible use of the oculomotor system for search in incompletely repeated displays.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1417227</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1417227</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Editorial: Cognitive-motor development and its consequences in children with neurodevelopmental disorders]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-05-08T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Editorial</category>
        <author>Yao-Chuen Li</author>
        <description></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1346280</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1346280</link>
        <title><![CDATA[The beneficial role of curiosity on route memory in children]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-03-14T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Yadurshana Sivashankar</author><author>Myra Fernandes</author><author>Pierre-Yves Oudeyer</author><author>Hélène Sauzéon</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionThere has been a growing interest in the role of innate curiosity on facets of human cognition, such as in spatial learning and memory. Yet, it is unclear how state level curiosity evoked by the current environment could interact differentially with trait curiosity, to impact spatial memory performance.MethodsWe assessed the influence of trait and state curiosity on route memory. Forty-two 10-year-old children with low and high-trait curiosity (20 Females; 22 Males) actively explored virtual environments that elicited varying levels of uncertainty (i.e., state-curiosity).ResultsAs trait curiosity increased, so did memory performance in low and high uncertainty conditions, suggesting that high-curiosity children can better recruit cognitive resources within non-optimal environments. Children with high compared to low trait curiosity also reported greater feelings of presence during exploration. Importantly, in environments with medium uncertainty, children with low trait curiosity were able to perform as well as those with high curiosity.DiscussionResults show that individual differences in trait curiosity influence route learning and these interact dynamically with state-curiosity invoked within different environments.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1336379</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2024.1336379</link>
        <title><![CDATA[The effect of task-irrelevant objects in spatial contextual cueing]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-03-05T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Adrian von Mühlenen</author><author>Markus Conci</author>
        <description><![CDATA[During visual search, the spatial configuration of the stimuli can be learned when the same displays are presented repeatedly, thereby guiding attention more efficiently to the target location (contextual cueing effect). This study investigated how the presence of a task-irrelevant object influences the contextual cueing effect. Experiment 1 used a standard T/L search task with “old” display configurations presented repeatedly among “new” displays. A green-filled square appeared at unoccupied locations within the search display. The results showed that the typical contextual cueing effect was strongly reduced when a square was added to the display. In Experiment 2, the contextual cueing effect was reinstated by simply including trials where the square could appear at an occupied location (i.e., underneath the search stimuli). Experiment 3 replicated the previous experiment, showing that the restored contextual cueing effect did not depend on whether the square was actually overlapping with a stimulus or not. The final two experiments introduced a display change in the last epoch. The results showed that the square does not only hinder the acquisition of contextual information but also its manifestation. These findings are discussed in terms of an account where effective contextual learning depends on whether the square is perceived as part of the search display or as part of the display background.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1326191</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1326191</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Retrieval-based inference in the acquired equivalence paradigm]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-03-01T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Troy M. Houser</author><author>Louisa Krantz</author><author>Dagmar Zeithamova</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionGeneralization is fundamental to cognition. In acquired equivalence, two stimuli that share a common association become treated as equivalent, with information acquired about one stimulus generalizing to the other. Acquired equivalence has been thought to rely on integrating related memories as they are encoded, resulting in fast spontaneous generalization, but other studies suggested effortful on-demand recombination of initially separate memories at retrieval. Here, we tested whether the tendency to separate vs. integrate related information may depend on a methodological detail of a traditional acquired equivalence paradigm.MethodsHuman participants underwent feedback-based learning of overlapping face-scene associations, choosing a correct scene for a face from two options on each trial. Foil (incorrect) scenes were controlled for half of the participants to ensure that they can only learn from corrective feedback. The other half had foils selected randomly on each trial, allowing statistical learning of face-scene co-occurrence to supplement feedback-based learning. We hypothesized that the opportunity for statistical learning would boost learning and generalization and facilitate memory integration.ResultsThe opportunity for statistical learning increased associative learning and generalization. However, rather than integrated memories, generalization was increased through learning during test.DiscussionThe results indicate that the tendency for generalization in the acquired equivalence is rather small, with no evidence for integrative encoding irrespective of group. The results inform current debates regarding encoding-based vs. retrieval-based mechanisms of generalization. They also highlight how methodological details may alter performance and the involvement of cognitive processes that underlie it.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1325246</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1325246</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Differential effects of location and object overlap on new learning]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-01-29T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Benjamin Chaloupka</author><author>Dagmar Zeithamova</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionOverlap with prior experience facilitates learning in some cases while hindering it in others. As facilitation and interference are typically studied in separate lines of research, using distinct paradigms, it is unclear what key factors drive the opposing behavioral outcomes.MethodsIn two experiments, we tested whether both effects can be observed within a single task, depending on what overlaps between experiences. Participants completed a novel task in which they learned a grid of object-location associations, followed by a second grid that overlapped with the first in locations and/or objects. We hypothesized that overlap of locations would serve as a spatial schema, facilitating new learning, while overlap of objects would create interference.ResultsIn line with our hypothesis, we found that location overlap facilitated learning of the second grid, while object overlap hindered learning of the second grid. We replicated these findings in a second experiment, additionally showing that both effects remain largely stable across two distinct grid shapes.DiscussionThese results demonstrate that the effect of overlap can be manipulated within a single task, pinpointing one factor that determines the direction of the effect and highlighting the differential roles of “what” and “where” in the organization of memory.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1171273</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1171273</link>
        <title><![CDATA[An energy-efficient process of non-deterministic computation drives the emergence of predictive models and exploratory behavior]]></title>
        <pubdate>2024-01-29T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Hypothesis and Theory</category>
        <author>Elizabeth A. Stoll</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Cortical neural networks encode information about the environment, combining data across sensory modalities to form predictive models of the world, which in turn drive behavioral output. Cortical population coding is probabilistic, with synchronous firing across the neural network achieved in the context of noisy inputs. The system-wide computational process, which encodes the likely state of the local environment, is achieved at a cost of only 20 Watts, indicating a deep connection between neuronal information processing and energy-efficient computation. This report presents a new framework for modeling non-deterministic computation in cortical neural networks, in terms of thermodynamic laws. Initially, free energy is expended to produce von Neumann entropy, then predictive value is extracted from that thermodynamic quantity of information. The extraction of predictive value during a single computation yields a percept, or a predictive semantical statement about the local environment, and the integration of sequential neural network states yields a temporal sequence of percepts, or a predictive syntactical statement about the cause-effect relationship between perceived events. The amount of predictive value available for computation is limited by the total amount of energy entering the system, and will always be incomplete, due to thermodynamic constraints. This process of thermodynamic computation naturally produces a rival energetic cost function, which minimizes energy expenditure: the system can either explore its local environment to gain potential predictive value, or it can exploit previously-acquired predictive value by triggering a contextually-relevant and thermodynamically-favored sequence of neural network states. The system grows into a more ordered state over time, as it physically encodes the predictive value acquired by interacting with its environment.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1203077</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1203077</link>
        <title><![CDATA[The impact of digital technology, social media, and artificial intelligence on cognitive functions: a review]]></title>
        <pubdate>2023-11-24T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Mini Review</category>
        <author>Mathura Shanmugasundaram</author><author>Arunkumar Tamilarasu</author>
        <description><![CDATA[In our modern society, digital devices, social media platforms, and artificial intelligence (AI) tools have become integral components of our daily lives, profoundly intertwined with our daily activities. These technologies have undoubtedly brought convenience, connectivity, and speed, making our lives easier and more efficient. However, their influence on our brain function and cognitive abilities cannot be ignored. This review aims to explore both the positive and negative impacts of these technologies on crucial cognitive functions, including attention, memory, addiction, novelty-seeking and perception, decision-making, and critical thinking, as well as learning abilities. The review also discusses the differential influence of digital technology across different age groups and the unique challenges and benefits experienced by children, adolescents, adults, and the elderly. Strategies to maximize the benefits of the digital world while mitigating its potential drawbacks are also discussed. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the intricate relationship between humans and technology. It underscores the need for further research in this rapidly evolving field and the importance of informed decision-making regarding our digital engagement to support optimal cognitive function and wellbeing in the digital era.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1270519</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1270519</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Category bias in similarity ratings: the influence of perceptual and strategic biases in similarity judgments of faces]]></title>
        <pubdate>2023-11-15T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Stefania R. Ashby</author><author>Benjamin Chaloupka</author><author>Dagmar Zeithamova</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionAfter category learning, same-category items tend to be rated as more similar than items from different categories. Whether this category bias in similarity ratings reflects true changes in perception or a strategic judgment bias to rate same-category items more similarly has been debated. The current study investigated the influence of perceptual and strategic judgment biases on perceived similarity ratings of face stimuli.MethodTo explore the influence of perceptual and strategic biases, post-learning category bias was measured after learning one of two category structures. In a similarity-consistent structure, faces within a category shared physical features and category bias could reflect a combination of strategic bias and true perceptual changes. In a similarity-inconsistent structure, category membership was orthogonal to physical features and category bias could only be driven by strategic bias to rate same-label faces as more similar.ResultsWe found a strong category bias after learning, but only when category labels could be aligned to the similarity structure. When category label conflicted with similarity structure, the mere presence of a shared label did not create a bias.DiscussionThese findings indicate that category bias in this paradigm is largely driven by a perceptual bias, consistent with proposals that category learning can stretch or shrink perceptual space by biasing attention toward category-relevant and away from category-irrelevant features. More broadly, these findings contribute to our understanding of category-driven biases and may inform bias research in other domains such as social stereotypes.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1258955</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1258955</link>
        <title><![CDATA[A combination of restudy and retrieval practice maximizes retention of briefly encountered facts]]></title>
        <pubdate>2023-10-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Stefania R. Ashby</author><author>Dagmar Zeithamova</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionIs retrieval practice always superior to restudy? In a classic study by Roediger and Karpicke, long-term retention of information contained in prose passages was found to be best when opportunities to restudy were replaced with opportunities to self-test. We were interested whether this striking benefit for repeated testing at the expense of any restudy replicates when study opportunities are brief, akin to a single mention of a fact in an academic lecture. We were also interested in whether restudying after a test would provide any additional benefits compared to restudying before test.MethodIn the current study, participants encountered academically relevant facts a total of three times; each time either studied (S) or self-tested (T). During study, participants predicted how likely they were to remember each fact in the future. During self-test, participants performed covert cued recall and self-reported their recall success. Final test followed immediately or after a delay (Experiment 1: 2 days, Experiment 2: 7 days).ResultsContrary to prior work, long-term memory was superior for facts the were restudied in addition to self-tested (SST > STT = SSS). We further investigated whether restudy after a test (STS) provides additional benefits compared to restudy before test (SST). Restudying after a retrieval attempt provided an additional benefit compared to restudying before a retrieval attempt on an immediate test, but this benefit did not carry over a delay. Finally, exploratory analyses indicated that restudy after test improved the accuracy of participants' subjective predictions of encoding success.DiscussionTogether, our results qualify prior work on the benefits of repeated testing, indicating that balancing testing with repetition may allow for more information to be learned and retained. These findings offer new insights into the conditions that promote encoding and long-term retention, provide new constraints for existing cognitive theories of testing effects, and have practical implications for education.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1132766</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1132766</link>
        <title><![CDATA[How generalization relates to the exploration-exploitation tradeoff]]></title>
        <pubdate>2023-07-19T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Hypothesis and Theory</category>
        <author>Troy M. Houser</author>
        <description><![CDATA[It is known that animals foraging in the wild must balance their levels of exploitation and exploration so as to maximize resource consumption. This usually manifests as an area-restricted search strategy, such that animals tend to exploit environmental patches and make long excursions between patches. This optimal foraging strategy, however, relies on an underlying assumption: nearby locations yield similar resources. Here, we offer an explanation as to how animals utilize this assumption, which implicitly involves generalization. We also describe the computational mechanisms hypothesized to incorporate factors of exploitation, exploration, and generalization, thus, providing a more holistic picture of animal search strategies. Moreover, we connect this foraging behavior to cognition in general. As such, we suggest that cognitive processes, particularly those involved in sequential decision-making, reuse the computational principles grafted into neural activity by the evolution of optimal foraging. We speculate as to what neurobiological substrates may be using area-restricted search, as well as how a model of exploitation, exploration, and generalization can inform psychopathology.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1113082</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1113082</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Parent-child neural similarity: Measurements, antecedents, and consequences]]></title>
        <pubdate>2023-03-29T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Mini Review</category>
        <author>Yang Qu</author><author>Zexi Zhou</author><author>Tae-Ho Lee</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Children and their parents are wired to connect as it provides the foundation for developing children to adapt to an increasingly complex environment. Although extensive studies demonstrate the importance of parent-child dyadic similarity at the behavioral, psychological, and physiological levels in fostering children's learning and psychological wellbeing, little is known about parent-child similarity at the neural level until recently. Drawing on our own work and the work by other scholars, this review summarizes recent advances in empirical research on parent-child neural similarity. Specifically, this review elaborates the theoretical importance of studying parent-child neural similarity and showcases how parent-child neural similarity is assessed using different neuroimaging approaches. We further synthesize empirical evidence about the contextual and individual factors that may contribute to variability in parent-child neural similarity, summarize how such neural similarity is related to different aspects of child adjustment, and highlight important directions for future research. Taken together, we hope that this integrative review can demonstrate cutting-edge research that explores neural similarity in parent-child dyads, and provide researchers with a clear roadmap to examine parent-child neural similarity in order to gain a better understanding of parental socialization process and brain development.]]></description>
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        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1027259</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcogn.2023.1027259</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Tracking the emergence of a pitch hierarchy using an artificial grammar requires extended exposure]]></title>
        <pubdate>2023-03-02T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Sarah A. Sauvé</author><author>Praveena Satkunarajah</author><author>Benjamin Rich Zendel</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionThe tonal hierarchy is a perceived musical structure implicitly learned through exposure. Previous studies have demonstrated that new grammars, for example based on the Bohlen-Pierce scale, can be learned in as little as 20 minutes.MethodsIn this study, we created two grammars derived from the Bohlen-Pierce scale similar in complexity to the western tonal hierarchy. Participants rated the goodness-of-fit of all Bohlen-Pierce scale notes in a probe tone paradigm before and after 30 minutes of exposure to one of the two grammars. Participants were then asked about their experience in a short interview.ResultsResults do not support the learning of the artificial grammar: correlations between goodness-of-fit ratings and pitch frequency distribution of a grammar were no different before and after exposure to a grammar. Interviews suggest that participants are bad at identifying the strategy they used to complete the task. Testing the strategies reported on the data revealed that ratings decreased with increasing distance of the probe tone from the tonic.DiscussionThis is consistent with early brain responses to chromatic pitches of the tonal hierarchy. We suggest that longer exposure time is necessary to learn more complex grammars.]]></description>
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