Since the 1980s, various organizations, mostly in Bonaire and Margarita Island (Venezuela), have implemented a wide portfolio of research initiatives and conservation interventions focused on the yellow-shouldered Amazon (Amazona barbadensis). The species was first categorized on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 1988 as Threatened, assessed as Vulnerable between 1994 and 2017, and re-assessed as Near Threatened in 2021 due to changes in the method for estimating the Extent of Occurrence (BirdLife International, 2021). It is one of the smaller Amazon species with a weight range of 250-500 g. The beak is horn colored, the head is yellow with a hint of white around the nostrils and pastel-blue under the beak; this blue color is also visible in the fanned tail. The shoulders have a yellow patch. Juveniles have grey eyes that change to orange-yellow as they mature beyond 12 months of age ( Figure 1 ). It is a monotypic species, with no sub-species recognized. The yellow-shouldered Amazon is endemic to our study region (Rodríguez-Ferraro, 2024).

Despite population increases in Bonaire and Margarita, poaching pressures continue throughout Venezuela. No major research or conservation efforts have taken place in mainland Venezuela, where two populations are known to exist (Rojas-Suárez and Rodríguez, 2015), or on La Blanquilla Island, where a small population (estimated at ~100 birds) is found (Rodríguez-Ferraro and Sanz, 2007). At the national level in Venezuela, Amazona barbadensis are listed as endangered (Rojas-Suárez and Rodríguez, 2015). For decades, they were considered regionally extinct in Aruba, after being recorded for the last time in 1955 (Voous, 1957). In 2024, they were reintroduced to the island. Although historical records suggest their presence in Curaçao (e.g., Hartert, 1893; Voous, 1983), no firm reports are available of an established, breeding wild population.

Throughout their geographical distribution ( Figure 2 ), yellow-shouldered Amazons enjoy legal protection. In Bonaire, collection of wild parrots has been prohibited since 1952, though the law was not enforced until a pet parrot registration campaign took place in 2002 (Montanus, 2003). The campaign resulted in the registration of over 600 pet parrots. At the time this was more than the estimated entire wild population on Bonaire. Since 2002, no additional pet parrots have been registered and the number of parrots kept as pets on Bonaire is thought to now be much lower (J. Haines, pers. obs.), although no census has taken place. In 2010 the yellow-shouldered Amazons were locally protected by island decree. In Venezuela, it has been illegal to capture and trade Amazona barbadensis since 1970, which was reinforced by an official decree in 1996 (Venezuela, 1970, 1996). In 2021, the Macanao Wildlife Reserve was established, protecting 12,000 ha of prime parrot habitat in Margarita (Minec, 2023). However, illegal trade and poaching are still common, as is the practice of keeping parrots as pets (Sánchez-Mercado et al., 2020a; b).

The primary threats to Amazona barbadensis are poaching, habitat loss, persecution arising from conflicts with farmers, and invasive species. The magnitude and importance of these threats varies across their geographic range. Interaction between threats amplifies their impacts, as was illustrated by the extinction of the yellow-shouldered Amazon in Aruba. Historically thriving, parrots faced a significant population reduction due to habitat degradation from urbanization, agricultural expansion, and deforestation. Simultaneously, they were subject to persistent persecution driven by cultural practice of shooting and poisoning as a crop pest. The last wild birds were reported by 1947 (Voous, 1983).

In Bonaire, illegal taking of chicks from nests occurs in several areas of the island. While historically this poaching is thought to have largely supplied local demand (i.e., pet owners on Bonaire), links with trade with Curaçao and international markets further afield have been recorded. In 2009, a chick ringed in the nest by researchers on Bonaire was found being kept as a pet in Curaçao. As Bonaire has few large trees, widespread deforestation led to the loss of dry forest habitat and the landscape became dominated in many areas by cactus scrub and introduced acacias. Donkeys and goats limited the regeneration of large trees. During the dry season parrots have been observed in roost sites within urban areas, presumably to take advantage of greater availability of food (Williams, 2009). In some areas of Bonaire, parrots are killed in large numbers as they are considered to be a pest on crops including sorghum and mangoes. Multiple incidents of shooting of parrots have been recorded, most recently in 2023 a parrot was rescued with a single puncture wound through the wing and body, indicative of being shot with an air-rifle or.22. Invasive animals have also played a relevant role as drivers of decline: predation of nests and adults by feral cats has been recorded, while nest cavities have been taken over by Africanized honey bees, a hybrid of the western honey bee (Apis mellifera), and the East African lowland honey bee (A. m. scutellata) (Williams, 2009).

Throughout Venezuela, the primary threat to yellow-shouldered Amazons is poaching, followed by habitat degradation, and to a much lesser degree human-wildlife conflict (Rojas-Suárez and Rodríguez, 2015). Keeping parrots as pets is widespread in the country (Sánchez-Mercado et al., 2020a; b; c), while anecdotal data suggest that in Margarita Island there are more parrots in people’s homes than in the wild (J. M. Briceño-Linares, pers. obs.). The largest driver of habitat degradation in Margarita is open-sky sand mining for the construction industry (Briceño-Linares et al., 2011). As large trees grow in seasonal river beds, their removal to mine sand results in the elimination of parrots’ nests, which are found in tree holes. Historical degradation of the vegetation of Margarita, which may have had lasting impact to the present, was caused by cattle grazing since colonial times (1500s onward) and goat grazing since the early 1900s (González, 2007). Killing of parrots that raid crops has been reported, but they are not frequent nor widespread (Rojas-Suárez and Rodríguez, 2015).

In 2021, stakeholders in the conservation of yellow-shouldered Amazons from throughout their range in the southern Caribbean and mainland Venezuela came together in a virtual workshop, facilitated by the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Conservation Planning Specialist Group (CPSG, 2020), to establish an agreed vision for the conservation of the species and outline a strategic plan for how this will be achieved. Here, we summarize the conservation interventions that have taken place over the last four decades focused on Amazona barbadensis and compile data on reproductive success and population estimates. Given that methods and interventions varied over time and between locations, we divided most methods and results by study site and then integrated our findings in the discussion. We consider how conservation interventions have impacted populations and ways forward for delivering the 2031 vision set out in the range wide action plan.

Monitoring of wild populations of yellow-shouldered Amazons on two southern Caribbean islands, where multi-faceted and varied conservation interventions have been implemented since the late 20^th century, indicates that populations have increased over the last two decades. While it is not possible to attribute these increases to any specific conservation intervention with certainty, improvements in breeding success associated with reductions in nest poaching suggest that interventions aimed at reducing poaching likely played a significant role in population recovery in both situations, as has been demonstrated for other Neotropical parrots (Wright et al., 2001). In contrast, recent surveys in mainland Venezuela suggest high rates of poaching persist and reinforce concerns over the long-term viability of these populations in the absence of focused conservation efforts.

In both Margarita Island and Bonaire, conservation efforts have been sustained over extended periods of time, apparently leading to the recovery of populations. The opportunity to explore multiple interventions and the ability to secure long-term funding have probably been key to success (Sodhi et al., 2011; Parks et al., 2022). In both instances, these interventions have varied over the years, adapting to changing circumstances, due to variation in the availability of funding, the involvement of governmental and various non-governmental organizations, changing personnel, political environments and emerging threats. These situations and challenges have varied considerably between the two islands. However, both situations can be characterized by sustained multi-decadal efforts involving and variously led by diverse stakeholders. In Bonaire the pro-active involvement of the island government, working closely with locally-based non-governmental organizations has likely been an important ingredient of success. The long-term commitment and support of an international organization, the World Parrot Trust, which has supported and worked closely with all stakeholders to provide financial, operational and technical support for conservation efforts on Bonaire for close to two decades, has also been critical. Similarly, in Margarita, the Venezuela-based organization Provita has been working in Macanao for the past two decades, with repeated support from organizations such as the Whitley Fund for Nature, Loro Parque Fundación, World Land Trust and Arenera La Chica – Hato San Francisco, in addition to municipal and state government agencies. The sporadic and variable conservation efforts in the face of diverse circumstances are likely representative of many conservation challenges in the region and around the world. The consistent positive outcomes of the two sites, however, demonstrate the power of partnerships, long-term commitment and persistence, and should be cause for optimism.

While it is ideal for research teams to implement systematic, carefully designed protocols leading to statistically robust analyses, the primary goal of conservation efforts is to mitigate threats and achieve population increases in threatened species. Achieving these outcomes can be complex and non-linear. Despite differing protocols over the years, field teams in Bonaire and Margarita have quantitatively demonstrated improvements in the status of yellow-shouldered Amazons. This further highlights the importance of adaptive management and sustained, multi-year financial support for achieving long-term conservation success (Briceño-Linares et al., 2011; Parks et al., 2022).

Preliminary observations on the Venezuelan mainland, combined with citizen science reports, allowed us to verify the persistence of populations of yellow-shouldered Amazons in the northeast and northwest of the country ( Figure 2 ). Though our surveys were not aimed at formally estimating population size or measuring the intensity of poaching, we found that two topics deserve future analyses. First, poaching for pets continues to be widespread. Caged yellow-shouldered Amazons were found at all of our interview locations. Second, yellow-shouldered Amazons continue to inhabit mainland sites reported in the past, but appears to be absent in the central-northern part of the country ( Figure 2 ). The fact that more than 1,000 parrots were counted one day at a single overnight roost site in El Pedregal, Falcón state, plus a number of recent eBird records between Falcón and Zulia, are encouraging. However, the long-term viability of this population in the face of significant poaching to supply local demand for pets and likely markets further afield is far from certain. Seizures of yellow-shouldered Amazons in Bonaire in 2011 and Aruba in 2022, indicate an international dimension to poaching and trafficking.

The current IUCN Red List assessment for the species assumes an overall declining population that approaches but does not exceed the threshold of 10% over three generations (25.5 years) (criterion C1) and that a population reduction projected, inferred or suspected in the future approaches 30% over the same length period (criterion A3cd) (BirdLife International, 2021). Inferring from apparent levels of exploitation for local and international trade within the species distribution in mainland Venezuela, we consider that it is plausible and likely that these thresholds are met or exceeded (particularly regarding C1) and that this information should be taken into account in assessments of population trends informing future Red List reassessments.

A range-wide action plan is in the final stages of publication (Briceño-Linares et al., 2024). Stakeholders from Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao and Venezuela, plus collaborators from other parts of the world were actively involved in workshops and as reviewers. Based on the information and experience accumulated over the last four decades, the group converged on achieving the vision that by 2031 the yellow-shouldered Amazon has functional, viable wild populations throughout its historical range. That by 2031, three wild populations are under evidence-based management programs and at least one population is reintroduced at a location where it went extinct. The plan foresees commitment and engagement of local communities that apply sustainable use principles, a reduction of the drivers of historical population decline, and the establishment of an international network of collaborators that supports these efforts. The first steps have been taken with the reintroduction of yellow-shouldered parrots into Aruba. Evidence-based management is also taking place in Bonaire and Macanao. Expanding evidence-based management to Aruba, assuring that the work in Bonaire and Macanao continues, exploring options in Curaçao, and initiating research or conservation activities in mainland Venezuela are the next steps in assuring that the decline of the yellow-shouldered Amazon is halted and reversed.