Teacher wellbeing in schools: a systematic review of job demands and job resources

Abstract

Research indicates that while teachers generally love their jobs, teaching remains a highly stress-sensitive profession. In recent years, concerns related to work stress and burnout, categorised as psychosocial risks, have been on the rise. These challenges are further intensified by increasing teacher shortages and attrition rates. This systematic literature review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of job resources and job demands in relation to three outcome dimensions (stress, burn out and wellbeing) in existing research literature on education. A total of 366 empirical studies were included. Among the most frequently reported job demands were workload, student-related challenges and time pressure. In contrast, the most commonly identified job resources included collegial support, student-teacher relationships, collaboration, and relationships with school leaders. The review concludes by offering suggestions for future research and discussing practical implications.

1 Introduction

In recent years, researchers worldwide have been highlighting the increasingly demanding nature of teaching (Liu and Onwuegbuzie, 2012; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2018), making it a profession particularly susceptible to stress. Research during the last two decades systematically reveals that teaching is a stressful occupation and that teachers are at risk of developing symptoms of burnout (Chang, 2009; Hakanen et al., 2006; Liu and Onwuegbuzie, 2012; Nguyen and Kremer, 2022; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2017). These findings should worry us: high stress levels can lead to lower job satisfaction in the long term (Desrumaux et al., 2015), lower involvement (Klassen et al., 2013) and eventually leaving the teaching profession (Ingersoll et al., 2014; Ryan et al., 2017; Weiss, 1999). In recent years, education has also been constantly confronted with a teacher shortage and the attrition of beginning teachers (Bracke et al., 2019; Thomas et al., 2019). There are significant psychosocial risks at play in the teaching profession, including stress, bullying, burnout, and substance abuse, which pose substantial costs to individuals, employers, and society at large (Bourdeaud'hui et al., 2023).

Research has shown that Human Resources Management (HRM) can stimulate both the performance and psychosocial wellbeing of employees. This is particularly the case when HRM within an organisation is systematically and integrally understood, i.e., when the various HRM practices are aligned with each other and with the strategic policy of the organisation (Van De Voorde et al., 2012). Strategic HRM can be defined as an approach to HRM that explicitly aims to achieve individual, organisational, and societal goals (Leisink and Boselie, 2014). Research in the educational context has demonstrated a link between the psychosocial wellbeing of teachers and the extent to which HRM is strategically aligned, coherent and takes the individual needs of teachers into account (Vekeman et al., 2018, 2020a, 2020b). Therefore, attention to the psychosocial wellbeing of staff members within schools and educational institutions should be inherently part of broader strategic and human resource school policies.

Psychosocial wellbeing policy is a critical component of the contemporary work landscape, with various countries enacting legal measures to ensure their implementation (Leka et al., 2010). These policies are often driven by directives, which mandate countries to ensure employers provide a safe and healthy work environment, including addressing psychosocial risks. In many countries, this directive has been transposed into national legislation, obliging employers to implement measures supporting the psychosocial wellbeing of their employees, these measures may include providing access to psychological support, stress management programmes, and training for recognising and addressing work-related stress and burnout.

Therefore, a comprehensive and targeted psychosocial wellbeing policy that focuses on the psychosocial aspects of work in schools is necessary. However, the development and implementation of such a policy pose significant challenges. It is a challenge to weave the psychosocial wellbeing policy in schools into other school policies, to prevent it from being an isolated initiative (Burns et al., 2020; Lester et al., 2020; Manning et al., 2020). School leaders and school boards therefore require support grounded in empirical insights. The present study aims to meet this need by identifying factors from the working environment and work situation that contribute to stress and wellbeing among educational staff. Despite the growing body of research on teacher stress and burnout, we lack a clear overview of the job demands and resources that influence teachers' stress and burnout. A review of studies conducted over the past few decades shows that numerous factors have been identified as influencing teachers' wellbeing, however a systematic synthesis of these findings is missing. Such an overview can support schools in implementing integral prevention strategies within a high-quality psychosocial wellbeing policy integrated in their HRM policy. While not all included studies explicitly adopt an HRM perspective, this review uses a strategic HRM lens to interpret how job demands and resources can be understood in relation to teacher management and organisational practices.

Within this framework, we examine three core outcome dimensions that are most consistently linked to job characteristics in the empirical literature: psychosocial wellbeing, stress and burnout. These outcomes represent complementary but distinct facets of wellbeing. By examining these three outcomes together, this review captures both the negative consequences of excessive demands and the positive conditions associated with adequate resources, thereby offering a comprehensive understanding of teacher wellbeing within the educational work environment.

2 Theoretical framework

2.1 Teacher (psychosocial) wellbeing

World Health Organization (WHO) defines mental wellbeing as “a state of wellbeing in which every individual realises his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to her or his community” (WHO, 2020). This definition suggests the factors for mental health that may be present in a working environment and can be reduced by providing a healthy workplace (WHO, 2020). Psychosocial wellbeing is a term that includes emotional or psychological wellbeing, as well as social and collective wellbeing (ILO, 2019). Psychosocial wellbeing requires various social policies around wellbeing, mental health, and psychological support, aiming at supporting the individual wellbeing of people while paying attention to both psychological and social factors (Stenner and Taylor, 2008). In line with prior research (Engels et al., 2004), teacher psychosocial wellbeing can be understood as a positive emotional state that results from the sum of specific context factors on the one hand and personal needs and expectations towards the school on the other. In the present study, a broad conceptualisation of teacher wellbeing is adopted. Wellbeing is conceptualised as an overarching construct capturing positive work-related states, including job satisfaction and work engagement (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2002). This approach allows for the integration of different positive dimensions of teachers' work experiences within a single conceptual framework.

2.2 Teacher stress

Hereto, we can also link the definition of stress by Bonn and Bonn (2000):“Stress, in essence, is a feeling of doubt about being able to cope, a perception that the resources available do not match the demands made” (p. 124). Teacher stress is a growing concern in the education sector, leading to burnout and high attrition rates. Kyriacou (2001, p. 28) describes teacher stress as the “experience by a teacher of unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, or depression, resulting from some aspect of their work”. This stress is often intensified by the high-pressure environment in schools, with studies labelling teaching as a “high stress” profession (Kyriacou, 2001; Travers and Cooper, 1996). Cognitive factors play a significant role in teacher stress. Kyriacou (2001) noted that negative stress reactions can occur when teachers perceive threats to their self-esteem, wellbeing, or sense of control in their work. Bernard (1990) found that faulty cognitions—irrational beliefs about school-related situations—were positively correlated with reports of teacher stress. These irrational beliefs can lead to heightened stress and contribute to burnout. According to the WHO definition (n.d.), work-related stress occurs when employees do not have the necessary resources to meet the demands placed in their workplace. Several studies have highlighted the important role of stressful work environments in the development of chronic diseases and their adverse effects on health.

However, not all stress is necessarily negative stress (Le Fevre et al., 2006). Positive stress occurs when an individual is challenged towards improvement or innovation without exceeding their capacity. It is therefore crucial to ensure that the requirements imposed on individuals do not exceed their capacity. After all, when they do, negative stress occurs, which must be prevented. To clarify, in this article, the term “stress” refers to its negative form.

2.3 Teacher burnout

Prolonged exposure to stress may result in burnout. Burnout is widely understood as a multidimensional phenomenon resulting from chronic exposure to emotionally demanding work environments (Schaufeli et al., 2001; Taris et al., 2005). Schaufeli and Greenglass (2001, p. 501) defined burnout as “a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion that results from long-term involvement in work situations that are emotionally demanding”. Burnout comprises four primary symptoms: exhaustion, mental distance, cognitive impairment and emotional impairment; with exhaustion as its central feature. Exhaustion refers to a state of depleted energy and impaired performance. Mental distance, closely linked to exhaustion, involves reluctance or unwillingness to engage in work-related tasks (Schaufeli et al., 2020). Additionally, cognitive and emotional impairment are integral aspects of burnout, as an individual's depleted energy reserves hinder effective cognitive and emotional functioning (Schaufeli et al., 2020). The effects of burnout include disruption of teachers’ normal habits, lack of work enthusiasm and creativity, inability to concentrate, lowered self-respect, loss of self-control in class and increased workplace absenteeism (Zhang and Yu, 2007).

2.4 Job demands-resources (JDR)

To prevent stress and burnout in a work context and hence, to enhance wellbeing, psychosocial wellbeing policies must be installed. Within literature, the Job Demands-Resources (JDR) model is one of the most commonly used frameworks to explain the factors within a job that explain stress and wellbeing of employees. This model states that there are two categories of job characteristics: job demands and job resources (JDR) (Demerouti et al., 2001). On the one hand, job demands are defined as those physical, social or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort. Due to this sustained effort, they are believed to be related to physical or psychological costs and can lead to emotional exhaustion. Examples of job demands are a high workload, uncomfortable physical working conditions and emotionally challenging relationships with clients. On the other hand, job resources refer to those physical, social or organisational aspects of the job that help achieve goals, reduce job demands and their consequences, and stimulate personal growth and development. Examples of job resources are job security, supportive working relationships with the manager and colleagues, feedback and autonomy. Based on the JDR model, job resources are assumed to increase teacher wellbeing and decrease turnover intention, and job demands decrease wellbeing and increase turnover intention (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2018). It is important to note that previous research (Devos et al., 2018; Vekeman et al., 2020a, 2020b) has shown that certain factors in schools can simultaneously act as job demands (and can therefore lead to stress) and job resources (and thus can lead to higher wellbeing). A clear example is teacher evaluation: it can be a job demand when conducted poorly, leading to feelings of judgment and stress among teachers. However, it can also function as a job resource when approached in a trusting environment, where teachers view it as an opportunity for constructive feedback and growth. The applicability of the JDR model for the educational context has also been demonstrated within educational research into stress and wellbeing among educational professionals (Le Fevre et al., 2006; Devos et al., 2018).

In addition to job characteristics, individual differences have been incorporated into the JDR model in the form of personal resources (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Personal resources are defined as positive aspects of an individual that contribute to resilience, reflecting their capacity to effectively manage and adapt to their environment (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Examples of personal resources are self-efficacy and adaptability (Leithwood et al., 2020; Parker et al., 2006). However, these personal resources will not be studied in the remainder of this article. Instead, this review study focusses on those job characteristics that schools can directly influence (JDR) through HRM and wellbeing policies.

Figure 1

In this study, the JDR within education are traced within these five categories through an in-depth literature review. Although the JDR model has been extensively studied, a systematic synthesis of findings within educational settings is still lacking. This study addresses this gap by providing an overview of the most commonly identified JDR within these five categories in education, a sector which is increasingly affected by staff shortages and high attrition rates. The five categories are used as a way to structure the multiplicity and complexity of job demands and resources in educational contexts. Rather than treating all JDR as a single undifferentiated group, the categorisation helps to cluster similar elements and highlight which types of demands and resources are most prominent in the research literature.

3 Methods

The literature review took the form of a systematic review. This review includes international empirical studies in which job resources and job demands are identified related to wellbeing and to Work organisation, Work design, Working conditions, Physical working conditions and Labour relations. In this review, a broad conceptualisation of teacher wellbeing was adopted. Wellbeing was used as an umbrella construct encompassing positive work-related states, including job satisfaction and engagement (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2002). At the same time, stress and burnout were treated as distinct, though related, constructs representing negative aspects of teacher functioning. In line with prior literature (Kyriacou, 2001; Maslach et al. 2001), stress was conceptualised as a response to demanding work conditions, whereas burnout was considered a more chronic and severe outcome of prolonged stress exposure. This distinction allowed us to capture both positive and negative dimensions of teachers' experiences, while acknowledging that different studies operationalise these constructs in diverse ways. The review was carried out on the basis of three concrete research steps (Dochy et al., 1999).

3.1 Search strategy

A literature search was carried out for relevant studies published between 2000 and 2023 in (inter)national search engines and databases: SSCI (Web of Science) and EBSCO/ERIC. The selection of SSCI (Web of Science) and ERIC (EBSCO) was guided by the focus of this review on educational research. ERIC is the primary database for educational studies, while SSCI ensures the inclusion of high-impact, peer-reviewed international research.

3.2 Study selection/search and retrieval process

Based on these criteria, a total of 366 studies were included in this review study. This systematic review followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines for reporting systematic reviews (Page et al., 2021). Figure 2 provides a visual representation of the study selection process, including identification, screening of the abstracts and assessing for eligibility based on the full texts. The references of the included studies are set out in Supplementary Appendix 1.

Figure 2

To contextualise the evidence base, several descriptive summaries are provided. Table 2 outlines the methodological approaches used across the studies, showing a predominance of quantitative designs complemented by qualitative and mixed-method research. Table 3 summarizes the distribution of studies across educational levels.

3.3 Coding procedure and synthesis

Information on all selected studies was collected in tables and coded for the following aspects per article: 1) name of study, 2) code that first author gave to the article, 3) author, 4) job resources, 5) job demands, 6) what factors of wellbeing are examined, 7) additional comments, 8) level of education (primary education, secondary education, special education, school leader primary education, school leader secondary education…), 9) type of research. Importantly, only empirically studied variables mentioned in the results sections were included in the coding, which further ensured that the synthesis was based solely on validated empirical findings. Studies conducted in the specific context of the COVID-19 pandemic were excluded, as this context represents a unique and atypical situation that may not reflect structural working conditions in education. In addition, studies focusing on pre-service teachers or teacher trainees were excluded, as the review aimed to focus on in-service teachers working in formal educational settings.

To ensure validity, significant time was dedicated to reading, re-reading, and discussing the articles within the research team (Patton, 1990). Throughout the research process, cross-checking decisions and interpretations occurred at various stages. Initially, the selection of articles was deliberated among team members. The making of clusters within the 5 categories was also discussed within the team, leading to some adjustments. During the coding process, particular attention was paid to borderline cases, where a job demand or resource could potentially fit multiple clusters. In such cases, coding decisions were guided by the primary conceptual meaning of the variable as described in the original study.

When ambiguity remained, the research team discussed the classification until consensus was reached. In some cases, clusters were refined, merged, or newly created to better reflect the empirical data. Although formal interrater reliability statistics were not calculated, consistency in coding was ensured through iterative discussions, cross-checking of coding decisions, and repeated review of the data by multiple researchers.

4 Results

After collecting all the information, this data was used to develop the literature review. Based on the tables, the frequency of each job resource and job demand in the selected studies was calculated. A total of 547 different job resources and job demands were found in the studies. The researcher then manually categorised the job resources and job demands into different clusters within the categories. For example, some of the demands and resources were worded differently in studies but could actually be classified as synonyms or related concepts under the same clusters (see Supplementary Appendices 2, 3). To enhance transparency and reproducibility of the clustering procedure, explicit operational definitions were developed for each cluster. These definitions were constructed through an iterative, inductive process based on the content of the identified factors. The operational definitions were used as decision rules to guide the consistent assignment of factors to clusters, particularly in cases where factors could potentially fit multiple categories. In such cases, factors were assigned to the cluster that best reflected their primary underlying meaning, as defined by the operational definitions.

Table 4 shows the most common JDR into clusters for the five categories.

The findings from the selected international literature are summarized below by category. The subtitles are the names of the clusters. The JDR are described from most common to least common as found in the reviewed literature. Figure 3 demonstrates how to read Table 4. For example, the category “Work organisation” will first be described, with the JDR that fall under it. Then we will discuss “Work design” with the JDR, and so on. The table above can be used as a guide to understand the structure of the results. Red indicates that this cluster was mentioned in articles as a job demand, green represents a job resource, and orange denotes clusters that have been identified as both job demands and job resources in the articles.

Figure 3

In the text, there will always be a reference to the number of studies in which a certain job demand or job resource can be found. For the sake of clarity, not all references are included in the text. All 366 studies can be found in Supplementary Appendix 1. Supplementary Appendices 2, 3 include lists of the clusters with all unique JDR included in that cluster.

In addition, Table 5 synthesizes the wellbeing outcomes per category and cluster, providing complementary insight into how different JDR relate to stress, burnout, and wellbeing.

4.1 Work organisation

4.1.1 Workload

Numerous studies (109 in total) focus on workload as a job demand, primarily focusing on work pressure, which entails feeling overwhelmed by the number of tasks within and beyond formal school hours. Across studies, workload is consistently linked to negative outcomes, particularly stress (reported in 39 studies) and burnout (28 studies). Teachers face stress due to time constraints hindering adequate attention to students. Teachers emphasise that the working days at school are hectic and offer little time for rest and relaxation. Administrative duties, paperwork, and tight deadlines go beyond the school days (Carroll et al., 2020; Forgasz and Leder, 2006; Gonzalez et al., 2017; Stauffer and Mason, 2013). Additional responsibilities such as meetings, correspondence with parents, and documenting interactions compound the workload (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2014). This accumulation of tasks leads to stress and a poor work-life balance (found in 17 studies) (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2014). Long working hours (cited in eight studies) make it difficult to balance work and life, leaving little time or energy for socialising or hobbies (Carroll et al., 2020). However, Mercer's (2023) findings suggest that engaging in hobbies can mitigate burnout. A smaller but still notable body of research connects workload to diminished general wellbeing (27 studies) and lower job satisfaction (13 studies), while only a few studies address its relationship with work engagement (6 studies). This pattern indicates that workload predominantly contributes to strain-related aspects of wellbeing rather than motivational ones. This was observed across both primary and secondary education levels.

4.1.2 School climate

This cluster includes 70 different studies. Fifty-nine studies refer to the importance of a positive school climate as a job resource. A positive school climate is consistently associated with enhanced indicators of wellbeing, including general wellbeing (24 studies), job satisfaction (8 studies), and work engagement (3 studies), as well as reduced stress (14 studies) and burnout (15 studies). A positive school climate is not only something teachers experience, but also something that is enabled by the way the school is organized. For example, teachers experience a sense of community when the organisational structures actively foster collaboration. For many teachers, a shared vision is a facilitator of a positive sense of community (Richards et al., 2018). In 11 studies school climate can be found as a job demand, where it was linked to burnout (5 studies) and stress (2 studies), with only a small number of studies connecting poor climate to diminished general wellbeing (2 studies). Teachers get more stressed when working for a school leader that is unsupportive, and in a climate where positive feedback is rare, but mistakes are immediately noticed (Stauffer and Mason, 2013). Methodologically, studies on school climate are predominantly quantitative (39 studies). Evidence spans both primary and secondary educational levels, with secondary education being slightly more represented.

4.1.3 Time pressure

Time pressure is a frequently studied job demand, often associated with workload, identified in 33 studies. Across the included evidence, time pressure is consistently associated with strain-related wellbeing outcomes, particularly stress (20 studies) and burnout (10 studies). Teachers require additional time beyond classroom hours for tasks such as planning and administration (Carroll et al., 2020). Time taken away from teaching causes stress for teachers (Gonzalez et al., 2017; Stauffer and Mason, 2013). Some of the issues cited are conflicts that take up a lot of time, such as increasing paperwork, extracurricular tasks, and interpersonal conflicts (Gonzalez et al., 2017). These can cause panic, anxiety and frustration (Stauffer and Mason, 2013). The job demand is observed across both primary and secondary education, with the largest proportion of studies drawing from combined samples (18 studies).

4.1.4 Government stress/support

Government stress is also a common job demand within work organisation, mentioned in 22 studies, with “accountability” being addressed in 11 studies, focusing on teachers’ accountability to government-set attainment targets. This culture of accountability intensifies teachers' workload (Shaw, 2016) and contributes to escalating stress levels as the school year progresses (Gonzalez et al., 2017). Additional evidence shows that government-related demands are associated with a range of strain-related wellbeing outcomes, most prominently stress (11 studies), but also burnout (4 studies) and broader reductions in wellbeing (7 studies), including lower work satisfaction (2 studies). Research by Stauffer and Mason (2013) highlights the negative impact of government expectations on teachers' workload and time pressure. Additionally, Kaynak Elcan (2020) underscores how accountability measures such as standardised testing impose a lot of stress on both teachers and students by pressuring them to achieve specific scores. Hereby, government support can be found in six different studies as a job resource, mainly involving funding, for instance extra support for children with special needs (Fitchett et al., 2018). Although examined less frequently than government stress, these forms of support are linked to positive wellbeing outcomes, particularly lower stress levels (5 studies) and, in some cases, enhanced wellbeing (1 study).

4.1.5 Collaboration

The culture of collaboration emerges as a crucial job resource, explored in 68 studies. Collaboration is not merely the result of interpersonal dynamics, but is actively facilitated by organisational structures and leadership practices. It entails effective cooperation among teachers, school leaders, and students, characterized by mutual respect, authentic communication, and shared responsibility (Anderson et al., 2015). Organisational arrangements that support shared goals, expectations, and guidelines, with common values and a shared vision, cited in 9 studies. Collegiality, trust, and involvement are also emphasised, with schools structurally promoting openness to other professionals in classrooms and confidence among teachers to support instruction (Antinluoma et al., 2018). Across the literature, collaboration is associated with reduced stress (13 studies) and burnout (9 studies), while promoting general wellbeing (29 studies), work satisfaction (9 studies), and work engagement (7 studies). The research comprises a mix of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method designs, and spans both primary and secondary education settings.

4.2 Work content

4.2.1 (Lack of) autonomy

Lack of autonomy as a job demand is found in 12 studies, with teachers expressing dissatisfaction over their limited decision-making authority in educational matters, such as curriculum development and student evaluation (Sanchez et al., 2018). This lack of autonomy can lead to conflict when teachers' personal goals and beliefs clash with management expectations (Foley and Murphy, 2015; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2014). This constraint is associated with notable wellbeing outcomes, including stress in 7 studies, burnout in 6 studies, and reduced work satisfaction in 2 studies. Evidence for these effects draws on 4 qualitative studies, 7 quantitative studies, and 1 mixed-method study, conducted across primary, secondary, and combined school contexts. Conversely, autonomy emerges as a crucial job resource in 40 studies. Teachers' autonomy encompasses freedom in pedagogical, organisational and routine aspects, contributing to higher job satisfaction (Lambert et al., 2015). Autonomy is linked to lower stress in 9 studies, reduced burnout in 14 studies, and improved wellbeing in 8 studies, including 6 studies highlighting enhanced work satisfaction and 6 showing higher work engagement. Several studies also associate autonomy with lower teacher attrition. Increased autonomy is associated with enhanced teacher wellbeing and decreased likelihood of changing schools (Manning et al., 2020; Yeşil Dagli, 2012). Moreover, autonomy predicts higher engagement and a lower burnout risk (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2014). For some teachers, autonomy includes flexibility in choosing when and where to prepare lessons, such as at home. This pattern is predominantly supported by quantitative research (25 studies). Job control, mentioned in 9 studies, pertains to an individual's ability to influence their work environment to align with personal goals, whether in work pace or social dynamics (Demerouti et al., 2001). Synthesizing these findings suggests that autonomy is not merely a structural condition but a central mechanism shaping teachers' capacity to regulate demands and maintain wellbeing. Where autonomy is restricted, conflict and strain tend to intensify; when autonomy is supported, teachers experience greater satisfaction and engagement.

4.2.2 Administrative tasks

Among work design, administrative tasks emerged as one of the most frequent job demands, found in 25 studies. These tasks shape the daily experience of teachers by adding complexity, reducing task variation, and often lacking clear educational purpose. Common issues such as e-mail volume, unnecessary paperwork, and formal daily routines are mentioned in various studies. Addressing administrative burdens by prioritising classroom work and learning activities over administrative tasks is shown to reduce teacher stress (Grayson and Alvarez, 2008; Simmons et al., 2019). Research link administrative demands primarily to stress (9 studies) and burnout (7 studies), while also affecting wellbeing (6 studies) and work satisfaction (2 studies).

4.2.3 Competence-related challenges

In addition, competence-related challenges are a common job demand, identified in 23 studies, including teaching unfamiliar subjects or adapting to new curricula, causing stress when teachers lack necessary expertise (Bowen, 2016; Gonzalez et al., 2017; Gowrie and Ramdass, 2014). Across the included studies, competence-related challenges are linked to stress (11 studies), burnout (6 studies), and reduced wellbeing (6 studies), and are also associated with teacher attrition in two studies. Professional development is an important way to resolve this and is discussed further under “working conditions”.

4.2.4 Teacher's role expectations

Another job demand within work design are excessive teacher role expectations, noted in 21 studies, closely linked to role conflict and role stress. Teachers face overwhelming expectations, leading to role strain (Lee and Wolf, 2019; Oplatka and Gurion, 2006), including pressure from parents expecting too much (Zhang and Yu, 2007). Role conflict, mentioned in six studies, arises when tasks and responsibilities are unclear or conflicting, such as managing administrative duties alongside teaching responsibilities (Stauffer and Mason, 2013). Across the reviewed evidence, 7 studies link these expectations to stress, 8 to burnout, and 6 to declines in general wellbeing, including one study reporting reduced work engagement. The findings come from a range of research designs and cover different school levels.

4.2.5 Emotional labour

Emotional labour is a job demand discussed in 19 studies. Teachers frequently engage in emotional tasks while working with students, including providing support for personal issues such as family problems. Across the reviewed studies, emotional labour is associated with stress in 6 studies, burnout in 7 studies, and broader declines in wellbeing in 8 studies, including 7 studies reporting lower job satisfaction and 1 study noting reduced work engagement. This emotional engagement can be stressful for teachers (Stark and Koslouski, 2021). Moreover, teachers often hide their true emotions, such as refraining from displaying negative emotions like anger or frustration, which can negatively impact their wellbeing (Stark and Koslouski, 2021). Engaging in emotional tasks is associated with lower job satisfaction among teachers (Kinman et al., 2011). These findings are supported by a variety of research designs, mostly quantitative studies (14).

4.3 Working conditions

4.3.1 (Lack of) opportunities for professional development

Professional development opportunities emerge as a job resource in 59 studies. Such opportunities are essential for enhancing subject knowledge and classroom practice skills. Traditional forms of professional development, like workshops or courses, are common, although they may not always address specific teaching challenges (Antinluoma et al., 2018). Studies report links between professional development and reduced stress (12 studies), lower burnout (13 studies), enhanced overall wellbeing (31 studies), increased work satisfaction (8 studies), and greater work engagement (5 studies). Leadership practices and school culture significantly influence teachers' motivation to engage in professional development, emphasizing the importance of fostering a positive school climate (Anderson et al., 2015; Morris et al., 2020). Moreover, investing in professional development enhances teaching effectiveness (Anderson et al., 2015). On the other hand, a common job demand identified in 11 studies is the lack of opportunities for professional development. Financial and time constraints often hinder schools from implementing comprehensive professional development programmes, limiting teachers to attending occasional workshops or seminars (Bowen, 2016). However, it is crucial for teachers to feel competent in their roles, as sufficient skills and knowledge correlate with reduced stress (Pillay et al., 2005). One study specifically highlights how the absence of personal and professional growth opportunities exacerbates stress (Jackson and Rothmann, 2005). These findings are predominantly supported by quantitative research, with additional insights from qualitative, case study, and mixed-method studies conducted across primary, secondary, and combined educational settings.

4.3.2 Employment conditions

The most frequently studied job demand in the cluster of “employment conditions” is teacher salaries, cited in 11 studies. Teacher salaries can impact their wellbeing, with dissatisfaction arising from perceived disparities between salary and workload. Higher salaries have been linked to reduced stress among teachers (Schaack and Le Stedron, 2020; Tang et al., 2018). Job insecurity is noted in six studies, particularly affecting beginning teachers who often take short-term assignments or replacements (Carroll et al., 2020). This instability negatively impacts teachers' wellbeing, even for experienced educators (Shaw, 2016). Employment conditions can also emerge as a job resource. Job security, including permanent contracts or positions, alleviates stress and burnout and enhances wellbeing, work satisfaction, and work engagement (stress: 7 studies; burnout: 9; wellbeing: 4; work satisfaction: 6; work engagement: 4; turnover intent: 2). Addressing job insecurity alleviates stress, particularly for beginning teachers (Jackson and Rothmann, 2005; Wang and Hall, 2019). Once teachers attain job security or secure permanent positions, this source of stress diminishes. Evidence on these demands and resources is drawn from a mix of qualitative, case study, quantitative, and mixed-method studies conducted across primary, secondary, and combined educational settings.

4.3.3 Wellbeing support programmes

Wellbeing support programmes in schools, encompassing activities like mindfulness (11 studies), emotional support (one study), and physical exercise (9 studies), serve as a job resource for teachers. These programmes can offer interventions for stress management, emotional regulation, and social interaction, also fostering a positive and supportive school climate (Braun et al., 2019; Hwang et al., 2019). The majority of studies link these programmes to improvements in general wellbeing (19 studies), highlighting that the primary impact of these interventions is on teachers' psychological health, alongside reductions in stress (6 studies) and burnout (7 studies).

4.3.4 Recognition and rewards

Recognition and rewards for teachers is a common job resource under working conditions, identified in 24 studies. Recognition and rewards are associated with reduced stress (7 studies) and burnout (7 studies), as well as enhanced wellbeing (7 studies), work satisfaction (1 study), and work engagement (2 studies). This can encompass various forms such as appreciation, encouragement, small gifts, thank-you cards, verbal praise, and motivational quotes (Brady and Wilson, 2020; Laine et al., 2018). Even seemingly small gestures like providing free snacks in the teachers' room contribute to this resource (Brady and Wilson, 2020). Teachers value recognition not only from school leaders but also from colleagues, as it enhances their sense of worth (Calp, 2020).

4.3.5 Teacher evaluation

Teacher evaluation is mentioned as a job demand in seven studies and as a job resource in 10 studies. As a job demand, teacher evaluation is associated with stress (5 studies), burnout (2), and reduced wellbeing (1). Improper evaluation practices contribute to teacher stress, particularly when weaknesses are highlighted (Grissom et al., 2015). Building a bond of trust between school leaders management and teaching staff is crucial to alleviate stress during evaluations, fostering an environment where feedback is viewed as an opportunity for growth (Grissom et al., 2015). When communication is lacking or trust is absent, teachers may perceive evaluations as overly strict or detrimental to teaching and learning (Ponce, 2018). As a job resource, teacher evaluation is linked to lower levels of stress (1 study) and burnout (4), and to improved wellbeing (4), including work satisfaction (2) and work engagement (2). Feedback emerges as a significant job resource, noted in four studies. Informal feedback, spontaneously given, is particularly valuable and indicative of a supportive organisational culture (Aarts et al., 2020). Establishing trust among teaching teams and between school leaders and teachers fosters an environment for informal feedback. Additionally, video feedback provided through individual coaching sessions, proves beneficial for beginning teachers (Tsang and Liu, 2016).

4.4 Physical working conditions

4.4.1 (Lack of) equipment

Another job demand under physical working conditions is the lack of learning resources, identified in seven studies. This is reflected in empirical outcomes, where the demands are associated with higher stress (3 studies), burnout (3), and reduced wellbeing (4), including lower work satisfaction (1) and work engagement (3). Financial constraints often lead to insufficient resources, forcing teachers to find cost-effective ways to make lessons engaging, which can be stressful (Bowen, 2016). Additionally, sharing resources among teachers and dealing with their maintenance adds to the stress (Gulzar and Rashid, 2020; Okeke and Mtyuda, 2017). Issues include sharing space with other teachers (three studies), poor infrastructure (two studies), and a lack of physical resources (one study). Limited space and shared computers contribute to teacher frustration and stress (Bowen, 2016). Moreover, the study by Okoroma and Robert-Okah (2007) mentions that teachers experience stress due to the lack of libraries with sufficient books and laboratories. Access to good and sufficient facilities and resources is mentioned in 14 studies as a job resource. Adequate facilities are linked to lower stress (9 studies) and burnout (2), as well as higher wellbeing (6), including work satisfaction (2), work engagement (1), and reduced teacher attrition (2). When teachers have access to sufficient material (three studies), good quality material (three studies) and well-maintained classrooms (one study), they will experience less stress.

4.4.2 Physical environment

In 25 studies, the physical environment emerged as a job resource. The term physical environment refers to the overall design and layout of a given classroom and its learning centers. Four articles emphasised the importance of contact with nature in classrooms, achieved through windows with natural views (Montiel et al., 2020). Two studies highlighted the significance of well-designed working environments, facilitating diverse teaching methods and equipped with resources like laptops and tablets (Jeannin and Barthelemy, 2020). Thermal comfort was noted in three articles, recommending well-insulated classrooms or air conditioning (Montiel et al., 2020). Additionally, air quality (two studies), the importance of plants (one study), acoustic conditions (one study), and lighting incidence (one study) were each identified as job resources. Physical environments contribute directly to key wellbeing outcomes. Across studies, physical conditions are linked to lower stress (1 study) and burnout (2 studies), as well as higher levels of teacher wellbeing (8 studies), specifically work satisfaction (2) and work engagement (2). These findings are supported by qualitative and case-study research, quantitative studies, and one mixed-method study, conducted across primary, secondary, and combined educational contexts.

4.4.3 Innovation

Innovation, found in 10 studies as a job resource, signifies a school's progressiveness and commitment to keeping up with developments. Innovation can function as either a demand or a resource, depending on its implementation and the support available to teachers. Properly implemented innovations can reduce teacher stress (Owen, 2015). However, poorly considered innovations may increase stress for both teachers and school leaders, acting as a job demand (Hakanen et al., 2006; Hakan Toytok, 2016). Technology-related challenges as part of innovation are identified in four studies. Teachers often feel stressed when required to adapt their lessons to new technological tools, fearing loss of control and uncertainty about their own proficiency compared to students (Ismail et al., 2019).

4.5 Labour relations

4.5.1 Student related challenges/student-teacher relation

In the realm of labour relations, student -related challenges are the most frequently studied job demand, found in 90 studies. This encompasses a spectrum of challenges, such as a lack of discipline and low motivation among students, which are common job demands for teachers. These demands are linked to higher stress (31 studies), burnout (24 studies), and lower wellbeing (13 studies), as well as reduced work satisfaction (6 studies) and work engagement (3 studies), with four studies reporting teacher attrition. Most of the evidence is quantitative (44 studies), supported by qualitative and mixed-methods studies. Lack of discipline encompasses disruptive behaviour, negative attitudes, and even aggression towards teachers (Olivier and Venter, 2003). Similarly, student motivation issues can lead to failures that affect teachers' stress levels (Mitchell, 2016). Teacher burnout is often related to teachers' inability to control disruptive behaviour in the classroom. While classroom management can go a long way toward controlling some of the bullying behaviour, the effort it takes can add an extra layer of stress and ultimately take its toll on the teacher (Kaynak, 2020). Three studies deal specifically with student bullying of teachers (Burns et al., 2020; Chang, 2009; Mitchell, 2016). Classroom management supported by clear policies is recommended to address this issue effectively (Chang, 2009). Violence in schools can be a part of bullying, but bullying also includes things like name-calling and false accusations. When teachers are victims of false accusations, ridicule and swear words, this is particularly stressful. One consequence of teachers being bullied by their students is that they leave their positions because of “emotional exhaustion” (Chang, 2009). Furthermore, class size is also a student-related challenge and identified as a job demand in 14 studies. Although no specific numbers of classroom sizes are provided, the literature indicates that overcrowded classrooms are becoming more common. Overcrowded classrooms are hindering educational efficacy and causing stress due to the inability to provide individualised instruction (Galaterou and Antoniou, 2017).

Additionally, fostering a positive relationship between teachers and students emerges as a crucial job resource, cited in 76 studies, across primary, secondary, and combined educational settings. Characteristics such as motivated students (seven studies), engaged students (five studies), disciplined students (two studies) and achieving individual student growth (one study) contribute to lower teacher stress and higher wellbeing (Schulze and Steyn, 2007). Teachers who maintain strong relationships with students report lower stress (27 studies) and burnout (26 studies), higher wellbeing (33 studies), greater work satisfaction (12 studies), and some reduction in turnover intentions (2 studies). Factors such as honesty, effort to understand individual student needs, and mutual influence contribute to a positive teacher-student relationship. Grayson and Alvarez (2008) also added that it is not one-sided. It makes sense that motivated and driven students influence teachers in a more positive way and in this way, students can more easily have a positive relationship with the teacher. Maintaining such relationships can enhance teacher motivation, enthusiasm, and overall job satisfaction, thereby reducing stress levels (Aldrup et al., 2018; Grayson and Alvarez, 2008; Turner, 2019). Gowrie and Ramdass (2014) indicated that in more rural and smaller schools, there is usually a more positive relationship between teacher and students.

4.5.2 Collegial relation

In 95 studies, relationships with colleagues were mentioned as a job resource. Positive relationships with colleagues enable teachers to alleviate stress by sharing concerns and feeling understood. Weiland's study (2021) indicated that positive collegial relationships improve teacher wellbeing through a sense of belonging and emotional support in each other's personal and professional lives. Across the studies, collegial support is linked to lower stress (16 studies) and burnout (27 studies), higher wellbeing (37 studies), work satisfaction (10 studies), and work engagement (5 studies), with six studies also reporting reduced turnover intentions. The evidence comes primarily from quantitative research (46 studies), alongside qualitative (25) and case-study work (7) and four mixed-method studies, conducted across primary, secondary, and combined educational settings. A good relationship between colleagues creates a familiar environment in which teachers dare to take more risks (Le Cornu, 2013). Relationships between colleagues can be fostered by encouraging teachers at school to come together, share their ideas and support each other. In addition, Le Cornu indicated that the collegial support and interaction among teachers play an essential role in creating a positive school climate (see also “Work organisation”). Specifically, mentors, mentioned in 6 studies, play a pivotal role, particularly for novice teachers, offering guidance and support (Jin et al., 2021). However, many factors must be taken into account, such as the availability of mentors, class schedules, financial opportunities and the wellbeing of mentors and teachers (Karanfi˙l and Atay, 2020). When teachers feel that they can turn to their mentor at all times, this provides peace of mind and reduces stress.

The lack of support from colleagues is mentioned as a job demand in 24 studies. Across these studies, lack of collegial support is linked to higher stress (6 studies), burnout (8 studies), and lower wellbeing (8 studies), with one study reporting increased teacher attrition. The absence of recognition and assistance contributes to diminished professional identity and confidence among teachers, resulting in increased stress (Schaack and Le Stedron, 2020). A lack of support exacerbates this issue, hindering collaboration and fostering anxiety and stress among teachers (McCallum and Price, 2010). Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2014) mentioned that collaboration and teamwork can be a source of stress. Teamwork sometimes leads to disagreements and even arguments in front of students. Because teachers can't choose their teammates, they may have different goals or values or ways to interact with students, which can lead to conflicts. Pursuing the same vision, values and goals is therefore extremely important (see also “Work organisation”). Three studies mention conflicts in the workplace (Gregersen et al., 2023). A specific job demand that goes with this is bullying in the workplace, particularly among teachers. Research by de Vos and Kirsten (2015) revealed that mainly male school leaders perpetrate bullying, often using colleagues as accomplices. Psychological bullying is more prevalent than physical bullying, leading to health problems for victimized teachers (Caponecchia and Wyatt, 2011; de Vos and Kirsten, 2015). Most of these studies are qualitative and case-study research (13 studies), which is particularly suitable for capturing the nuanced dynamics of collegial relationships.

4.5.3 (Lack of) support by school leaders

In 33 studies, the lack of support by school leaders emerged as a significant job demand, characterized by unproductive relationships between school leaders and staff due to insufficient information, feedback, and help (Swapp, 2020). This deficit in support is consistently linked to higher levels of stress (11 studies) and burnout (10 studies), lower wellbeing (8 studies), and decreased work satisfaction (2 studies), with one study additionally reporting increased turnover intention.

Conversely, the support of the school leader is also mentioned an frequently studied job resource in 86 different studies. Across the included studies, school leader support is consistently linked to key wellbeing outcomes: it is associated with reductions in stress (15 studies) and burnout (26 studies), and improvements in overall wellbeing (29 studies), including work satisfaction (15 studies) and work engagement (7 studies). Positive relationships within the school team can be fostered when leaders demonstrate genuine interest in staff wellbeing, prioritise interaction and relationships, and provide assistance and appreciation for teachers' dedication (Weiland, 2021). Different leadership styles can also be a job resource. According to Shie and Chang (2022), authentic leadership among school leaders involves sincere and transparent interactions with teachers, active listening to their suggestions, and adapting strategies based on feedback, while also taking responsibility for mistakes. This leadership approach promotes positive psychology among teachers, which in turn leads to positive wellbeing. Transformational leadership has been found to have a positive impact on teachers' social-emotional wellbeing, student-teacher relationships, and teacher burnout (Tian et al., 2022). A few sources point to instructional leadership as a job resource, which was mentioned in four studies. Instructional leadership includes the active support of teachers' classroom practices by school leaders, with the aim of enhancing instructional quality (Liu et al., 2021). These findings are supported primarily by quantitative research (55 studies).

4.5.4 Teacher-parent relation

Finally, in 13 studies the relationship between teachers and parents is a job resource. These studies are about parent involvement specifically, but also about the support that teachers receive from parents. The study by Sucuoğlu and Bakkaloğlu (2018) showed that the relationship between teachers and parents is influenced by the attitude of teachers towards parents, the (lack of) time to meet parents and also frequent changes of teachers. These interactions are linked to reductions in stress (4 studies) and burnout (4 studies), and to improvements in overall wellbeing (4 studies), including higher work satisfaction (3 studies). Most of this evidence stems from quantitative work (9 studies), complemented by qualitative and case study research and one mixed-method study, spanning primary, secondary, and combined educational settings.

Additionally, lack of parental involvement was identified as a job demand in seven studies, manifesting in various forms such as non-payment of school fees leading to conflicts between, teachers, and parents' management (Zikhali and Perumal, 2016), as well as language barriers hindering effective communication between parents and school staff (Swapp, 2020). These situations are associated with heightened stress (3 studies), increased burnout (2 studies), and diminished wellbeing (1 study), including reduced work satisfaction.

5 Discussion

This review study offers an overview of the research on the JDR that teachers experience in the educational context in relation with three outcome dimensions (stress, burnout and wellbeing). The study is structured according to five categories in the work environment and work situation (work organisation, work design, working conditions, physical working conditions and labour relationships) and their influence on psychosocial wellbeing of staff members. The results of the literature review show that job resources and job demands emerge for all five categories in the research literature and in relation with all three outcome dimensions.

Among these categories, labour relations emerged as the most common category, including relationships between teachers with students, parents, colleagues, school leaders and other teachers. Many categories in these studies can serve as both job demands and job resources. However, it is remarkable that many studies point to the positive influence of labour relations in preventing the most severe outcome which we took into account in our study, namely burnout. This finding underscores that working in education is fundamentally about human interaction, with students being the primary focus (Aldrup et al., 2018; Gowrie and Ramdass, 2014; Grayson and Alvarez, 2008; Schulze and Steyn, 2007; Turner, 2019). Human interaction can be both revitalizing and draining, particularly in social profit sectors such as education and healthcare (Siddiqui, 2013). Human interaction can both strengthen connection and provide support, while at the same time requiring emotional and mental effort from those involved (Siddiqui, 2013). The relationships formed within this context are critical in shaping the overall work environment. Encouraging collaboration among colleagues is therefore essential, particularly within a school setting, as it fosters a cohesive teaching team (Antinluoma et al., 2018; Cooper et al. 2020). In contrast, the physical environment category was found in the least number of studies (especially in relation with stress and burnout), suggesting that physical infrastructure and related resources play a less prominent role in relation to stress and burnout in the educational workplace compared to interpersonal relationships.

In the category of work design, mostly clusters that are job demands were found, encompassing various elements such as administrative tasks and competence-related challenges. These job demands can create pressure on employees and contribute to work-related stress if not managed properly (Bowen, 2016; Gonzalez et al., 2017; Simmons et al., 2019). An exception in this category is the cluster “autonomy” which was shown to be frequently studied as job resource to prevent stress and burnout and promote wellbeing. On the other hand, the category working conditions encompasses clusters that can either act as both job resources and job demands or clusters that are purely job resources. Schools can focus on these aspects to mitigate stress among teachers, such as implementing wellbeing support programmes and offering different kind of rewards (Brady and Wilson, 2020; Hwang et al., 2019; Laine et al., 2018).

This study on JDR revealed that some topics related to JDR have been studied in empirical research far more frequently than others. While this may partly reflect their greater practical importance, it is also possible that conceptual or methodological factors have contributed to this uneven focus. Topics such as workload are relatively straightforward to research, resulting in their frequent examination in studies. However, more complex topics, such as workplace bullying, tend to be overlooked despite their considerable impact on employees and the overall work environment (Caponecchia and Wyatt, 2011; de Vos and Kirsten, 2015). The literature indicates that workplace bullying is a growing problem, yet there is relatively limited research focused on effective solutions to address it. For instance, studies by Chang (2009), Burns et al., (2020), and Mitchell (2016) specifically describe cases of student bullying of teachers, highlighting a concerning trend that requires immediate attention and comprehensive solutions. In the study by de Vos and Kirsten (2015), it is noted that school principals sometimes abuse their positions to bully colleagues. Additionally, Caponecchia and Wyatt (2011) suggest that some colleagues avoid involvement out of fear of becoming targets themselves. Psychological bullying, such as gossip and the spread of personal information, is the most common form in a school context, while physical bullying is less frequent.

School leadership is an important factor associated with JDR for teachers. This review study showed that there is a complex interplay of different characteristics that have an influence. Most of the JDR that are found are important components that are part of the school leader's responsibilities. This highlights the critical role of leadership in educational environments. For instance, transformational leadership (i.e., focusing on positive relations and authentic leadership) results in fewer job demands and more job resources and indirectly contributes to more positive work attitudes and better job performance (Fernet et al., 2015). School leaders can influence their teams' job demands and resources and indirectly impact employee wellbeing and performance (Albrecht et al., 2015, Tummers and Bakker, 2021). School leaders may also function as key job resources themselves. By using charisma tactics, individual consideration, and opportunities for professional development, leaders help employees deal with their job demands (Breevaart and Bakker, 2018). It is surprising that we found few studies explicitly identifying instructional leadership as a job resource for teachers, even though previous research has highlighted it as an import leadership style for other educational outcomes - such as professional development (Kilag and Sasan, 2023).

The complexity and multiplicity of JDR identified in this study, confirms that psychosocial wellbeing policies cannot be seen as a stand-alone issue within the organisation in the schools and that “one shot” measures are not appropriate to ensure psychosocial wellbeing. The focus on psychosocial wellbeing of teachers is best integrated into broader strategic and human resource policies (Vekeman et al., 2020a, 2020b). By systematically inventorying factors such as workload, time pressure, and support, alongside opportunities for professional development and autonomy, school leaders can tailor interventions to reduce stressors and enhance teachers' resilience and job satisfaction. This strategic approach empowers school leaders to implement targeted and integral policies that cultivate a supporting work environment, ultimately promoting the wellbeing of teachers and optimizing educational outcomes (McCallum, 2022).

Moreover, by focusing on three dimensions of wellbeing (stress, burnout and wellbeing), this study provides also important insights into those job resources that can help us to prevent the most severe outcome, namely burnout. In this regard, all five categories have been identified as important, however, also for this outcome, the category “labour relations” have been identified as especially important as job resources. Investing in these relationships has been shown in empirical studies to be of crucial importance to prevent teacher burnout (Aldrup et al., 2018; de Vos and Kirsten, 2015; Turner, 2019). In this regard, the number of studies that pay attention to burnout as an outcome has also been shown to be large, which underlines the fragile position of teachers in the current educational context.

In conclusion, this systematic review led to a better understanding of the most common job resources and job demands in educational research in relation to three outcomes (stress, burnout and wellbeing), providing valuable insights for improving their work environment and overall wellbeing. The findings of this review should therefore be interpreted as a structured conceptual mapping of factors related to teacher wellbeing, rather than as a direct comparison of effect sizes or measurement-based outcomes.

5.1 Strengths and limitations

This review study synthesizes decades of research on the most commonly identified JDR in educational empirical research. By collecting findings from various studies, it provides a comprehensive summary of key JDR in the educational context in relation to three outcome dimensions (stress, burnout and wellbeing). The strength of the present study lies in its comprehensive approach, as it integrates both quantitative and qualitative empirical research through a systematic review. By incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data, the study contributes to bridging the gap between these often disparate strands of research, fostering a more integrated understanding. The identification of 366 relevant studies underscores the significance of this topic and highlights the necessity for a comprehensive overview. This extensive synthesis not only underscores the prevalent trends and patterns in JDR research but also identifies gaps and areas for future research (such as the earlier example of research on bullying), thereby contributing valuable insights to the field. By organising the findings into five thematic categories and clustering related research, this review reduces fragmentation and offers a more coherent framework.

Additionally, it is important to understand that the findings we discovered might not show the “heaviest” JDR. Instead, what we found might just reflect what researchers have been focusing on the most. This could mean that some important areas, like bullying, might not have received as much attention.

However, it is essential to acknowledge certain limitations inherent in this review. One notable limitation concerns the temporal scope of the study, which necessitated the exclusion of studies predating the year 2000. This exclusion criterion may have resulted in the omission of relevant literature that could have provided valuable insights into the subject matter. At the same time, it is crucial to remain sufficiently contemporary to ensure the findings are applicable in today's context.

In a broad examination of the relationships between job demands, job resources, and overall wellbeing, stress, and burnout, it was observed that these factors interact in complex ways that do not allow for straightforward conclusions about which job demands are the most detrimental. While high job demands consistently correlate with increased stress and risk of burnout, the specific impact of different types of job demands varies among individuals and contexts. The analysis in this study tends to lack the precision needed to distinguish between job demands that merely increase stress levels and those that cause severe burnout. Additionally, certain job demands may not individually result in significant stress, but the cumulative effect of numerous “minor” job demands can lead to overall stress and potential burnout (Van den Broeck et al., 2010). This phenomenon underscores the importance of considering the combined impact of multiple job demands rather than evaluating each in isolation. Conversely, this same logic applies to positive aspects of work, where one job resources may not individually lead to increased satisfaction or wellbeing, but a combination can enhance overall wellbeing and job satisfaction. However, the current study is limited in its ability to investigate these interactive effects comprehensively. The interplay between different job demands and their collective influence on stress and burnout remains underexplored, necessitating more detailed empirical research to understand how combinations of job demands contribute to elevated stress levels and other outcomes. To address this, future studies should adopt a more nuanced approach, exploring the differential impacts of various job demands on stress and burnout, thus enabling more precise identification of the most harmful job demands and informing targeted interventions to mitigate their effects.

Although the current review distinguishes clearly between job demands and job resources, it did not differentiate between hindrance and challenge demands. This distinction, however, is increasingly emphasised in JDR research and may offer added theoretical value. Future studies should therefore investigate whether certain demands in educational settings, such as innovation requirements or competence-related challenges, function differently depending on the availability of supporting resources. Exploring this differentiation could deepen our understanding of how some demands may stimulate professional growth under the right conditions, while others predominantly contribute to strain.

While more fine-grained distinctions between different dimensions of wellbeing (e.g., hedonic vs. eudaimonic wellbeing, job satisfaction, and work engagement) could provide additional analytical depth, the present review adopts a broader conceptual approach. This choice aligns with the aim of providing a comprehensive mapping of job demands and resources related to teacher wellbeing. Future research could build on this work by further disentangling these dimensions.

In addition, the review does not systematically compare measurement instruments across studies, which may limit direct comparability of findings.

This review focused primarily on identifying and categorising job demands and resources, rather than synthesising the direction or strength of their relationships with outcomes. As such, we did not systematically assess whether findings were predominantly positive, negative, or mixed. In addition, while we distinguished between qualitative and quantitative studies, we did not conduct a detailed methodological appraisal of study designs (e.g., cross-sectional vs. longitudinal) or measurement approaches. Future research could build on this work by incorporating more fine-grained synthesis of methodological characteristics and effect directions.

Future studies should also consider incorporating personal resources, defined as positive self-evaluations that refer to individuals' sense of their ability to control and impact their environment successfully (Hobfoll et al. 2003). When teachers perceive that they can control their work environment, they are better able to deal with job demands. For example, using a weekly diary study, Bakker and Sanz-Vergel (2013) found that job demands were positively related to work engagement when self-efficacy and optimism were high. However, job demands were negatively related to work engagement when these personal resources were low.

In future research it will be important to systematically list JDR such as workload, time pressure, and support, alongside opportunities for professional development and autonomy. Therefore, it will be crucial to explore instruments to identify and measure JDR in schools.

5.2 Implications

Many factors can serve as valuable resources when managed effectively, but they can also become demands if neglected or mishandled. Research therefore underscores that school leadership plays a crucial role in shaping the work context that supports or hinders teacher wellbeing. This highlights the need for leaders to deliberately create organisational conditions that strengthen available resources and prevent them from turning into stressors.

A major implication is the importance of establishing a positive school culture that prioritises collaboration. Collaboration not only enhances professional growth but also creates a more cohesive and enjoyable work environment (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2014; Antinluoma et al., 2018; Cooper et al., 2020). In practical terms, this implies that school leaders should implement structures that actively facilitate collaboration, such as shared planning time, opportunities for peer learning, and participatory decision-making. Such structures not only enhance professional growth but also contribute to a more cohesive and enjoyable work environment, which in turn forms the foundation for broader wellbeing initiatives.

Proactively addressing stressors within the school setting is also crucial for sustaining teachers' wellbeing. This means that school leaders must systematically identify and address stressors such as workload and time pressure, implementing targeted interventions to reduce stress and improve teacher resilience. It is essential for school leaders to assess how their own school performs in these areas. Conducting regular assessment allows leaders to evaluate their own school's performance and design targeted interventions that strengthen teacher resilience and create a more sustainable work environment for teachers.

Schools can implement wellbeing support programmes and recognise teachers' contributions to alleviate stress (Brady and Wilson, 2020; Hwang, 2019; Laine et al., 2018). In essence, school leaders have many tools at their disposal to create a context where teachers can thrive, both professionally and personally.

Although large-scale initiatives are beneficial, research also shows that small, low-cost gestures, such as providing free snacks in the teachers' room, can significantly improve school climate and boost morale (Brady and Wilson, 2020). These seemingly minor actions foster appreciation and create a nurturing atmosphere for educators.

Finally, research indicates that aligning teacher assignments with individual strengths and preferences contributes positively to teachers' sense of autonomy, job satisfaction, and overall wellbeing (Vekeman et al., 2020a, 2020b). Consequently, school leaders should engage in ongoing dialogue with teachers about their preferences and needs, and consider these insights when making staffing and assignment decisions. By adopting this more personalised approach, schools can better address teachers' specific demands, and further promote their professional fulfilment and wellbeing.

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