Amplifying silent voices: a qualitative study of female Islamic boarding school leaders’ (Nyai) perspectives on preventing gender-based violence in Indonesia

Abstract

Gender-based violence in educational settings persists across Southeast Asia, yet the perspectives of female religious leaders within Indonesia’s Islamic boarding schools (pesantren) remain largely absent from scholarly discourse. This qualitative study centres the voices of Nyai, female pesantren leaders, through in-depth interviews with four Nyai from different institutions across Java. Drawing on Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan (Women’s Authentic Justice), feminist institutionalism, and preventive socialisation theory, thematic analysis reveals six key themes: theological foundations grounded in Maqashid Shariah; daily practices cultivating respect through classical texts; identification of structural risks including power imbalances and surveillance gaps; reimagining power relations through love-based obedience; challenges encompassing toxic seniority and intergenerational tensions; and visions for pesantren as peace laboratories. The inclusion of a younger-generation Nyai illuminates generational shifts in approaching prevention, including internal resistance and strategic reform initiatives. This study demonstrates that Nyai articulate prevention approaches representing indigenous Islamic feminism, offering authentically local resources for addressing gender-based violence while maintaining fidelity to Islamic tradition. The findings contribute to understanding how female religious leaders in Asian contexts navigate tradition and transformation to protect those entrusted to their care.

Introduction

Gender-based violence in educational settings has emerged as a pressing global concern, with profound implications for students’ safety, well-being and educational outcomes (UNESCO 2019). Within the specific context of Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia, this issue has gained increasing attention from scholars, policymakers, and the public, particularly following several high-profile cases that have drawn national scrutiny.

Indonesia's pesantren represent one of the world's largest Islamic education systems, with thousands of institutions educating millions of students annually. These institutions occupy a unique position in Indonesian society, serving as centres for religious learning, moral formation, and community development (Dhofier 1982). However, recent years have witnessed growing concern about violence within these institutions. According to Indonesia's National Commission on Violence Against Women (Komnas Perempuan), between 2020 and 2024, of ninety-seven reported cases of sexual violence in educational settings, seventeen occurred in pesantren 17.52% making these institutions the second-most frequent setting after higher education institutions (Komnas Perempuan 2025). These figures likely represent only a fraction of actual incidents, as Komnas Perempuan notes that sexual violence cases are an ‘iceberg phenomenon’, with reported cases significantly fewer than those occurring in reality (Kompas.com 2021).

Gender-based violence in pesantren takes multiple, overlapping forms shaped by the distinctive authority structures of these institutions. Perpetrators are often individuals who hold religious authority kyai, ustadz, or senior students and who exploit the doctrine of unquestioning obedience (ta'ẓīm) as well as the sanctity of the teacher student bond. Violence frequently occurs in spaces that escape adult supervision, such as dormitory bathrooms, laundry areas, and isolated corners of the school compound, and is routinely justified through distorted interpretations of Islamic teachings, including promises of berkah (blessing) or appeals to the student's obligation of absolute loyalty. Institutional norms that prioritise protecting the school's reputation often discourage victims from reporting (Kompas.com 2021; Marcoes 2020).

The scholarly literature on violence in pesantren has predominantly focused on male leadership perspectives, examining the roles of kyai and ustadz in either perpetuating or preventing violence. Studies have identified how power imbalances, patriarchal culture, and the doctrine of unquestioning obedience can create environments conducive to abuse (Murad, Ashaf and Kartina 2025). However, the perspectives of female pesantren leaders, known as Nyai, remain significantly underrepresented in academic discourse. This gap is particularly striking given that many Nyai serve as primary leaders of girls’ pesantren or co-leaders alongside their husbands, offering unique vantage points on issues of gender, power, and protection (Blackburn, Smith and Syamsiyatun 2008).

In the growing field of Asian women's studies, scholars have increasingly emphasised the importance of centring indigenous perspectives and avoiding the imposition of Western feminist frameworks that may not adequately capture local realities (Amin 2018; Kim 2013). As Amin (2018: 184) argues in her study of Asian women's empowerment through higher education, understanding women's agency in non-Western contexts requires ‘attention to the complexity and multidimensional nature of empowerment dynamics’ and how women negotiate conflicting experiences within their cultural frameworks. Similarly, Kim (2013: 7–8) highlights the methodological importance of reflective practice in representing women's agency, cautioning against the victim-agent dichotomy that often characterises research on women in patriarchal societies.

This study addresses this lacuna by centring the voices of Nyai in discussions of gender-based violence prevention. Drawing on in-depth interviews with four Nyai from different pesantren across Java, this research asks: How do female pesantren leaders conceptualise the prevention of gender-based violence in Islamic educational settings? What strategies do they employ to create safe environments for students? And how do their perspectives challenge or complement existing discourses on violence prevention in religious education?

The significance of this inquiry extends beyond academic contribution. As Komnas Perempuan has emphasised, addressing gender-based violence in pesantren requires understanding the complex interplay of religious authority, gender norms, and institutional culture. Female leaders, positioned at the intersection of religious authority and gendered experience, may offer distinctive insights into prevention strategies that are both theologically grounded and attentive to students’ vulnerabilities (Rofiah 2020). By amplifying their voices, this study aims to contribute to the development of more inclusive, effective approaches to preventing gender-based violence in Islamic educational contexts, while also contributing to broader discussions in Asian women's studies about indigenous feminism, religious women's agency, and institutional transformation.

Literature review

Gender-based violence in educational contexts

Gender-based violence in schools has been conceptualised as violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering against someone based on gender discrimination, gender role expectations, gender stereotypes, or based on the differential power status linked to gender (UNESCO and UN Women 2016). This definition encompasses a wide range of behaviours, from physical assault and sexual harassment to psychological intimidation and discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Schools are increasingly recognised as dual spaces where violence can be normalised and reproduced, but also sites where prevention and transformation are possible (Varela et al. 2019). Research has identified several key contributing factors, including unequal gender socialisation from early ages, the linking of violence with attractiveness in dominant cultural discourses, and the presence of inegalitarian gender attitudes among students and staff (Gómez 2015; Varela et al. 2019). Effective prevention programmes are characterised by the involvement of key actors, particularly peer groups, teachers, and the broader community, underscoring the importance of whole-school approaches (Racionero-Plaza et al. 2021).

Within the Asian context, studies have explored how cultural norms and institutional structures shape experiences of violence and women's responses to it. Research on domestic violence in rural Bangladesh found that abused women's coping strategies and help-seeking practices were deeply embedded in informal networks and cultural expectations, with women prioritising marriage preservation due to concerns about their own future and that of their children (Khan 2015). This finding underscores the importance of understanding how cultural context shapes both the experience of violence and the possibilities for prevention, a principle directly relevant to understanding gender-based violence in Indonesia's pesantren.

The pesantren context

Pesantren are traditional Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia characterised by several distinctive features: the central role of the kyai, residential arrangements where students (santri) live in dormitories, a curriculum focused on classical Islamic texts, and the cultivation of values including sincerity, respect for teachers, and discipline (Dhofier 1982). These institutions have historically enjoyed high public trust, often being perceived as morally superior to secular educational alternatives (Azra 2018).

Historically, pesantren have been integral to Indonesia's socio-political landscape. Emerging as early as the 15th century, they played a central role in the Islamisation of the archipelago and became centres for the transmission of classical Islamic texts (kitab kuning) under the authority of a kyai (Dhofier 1982). During the anti-colonial struggle, pesantren also served as hubs of resistance, mobilising santri in defence of Indonesian independence (Azra 2018). The legal and political status of pesantren has been significantly strengthened in recent decades. Law No. 18 of 2019 on Pesantren formally recognises pesantren as institutions with three core functions: education, religious preaching (dakwah), and community empowerment, guaranteeing their position as equal to other educational pathways (Republik Indonesia, 2019). The subsequent establishment of the Directorate General of Pesantren (Direktorat Jenderal Pesantren) through Presidential Regulation No. 18 of 2026 marked a further institutional commitment by the state to support this uniquely Indonesian educational system (Peraturan Presiden 2026). Despite this strong institutional and legal foundation, contemporary discourse on pesantren is increasingly shaped by concerns over internal governance and safety. Data from Komnas Perempuan (2025) indicate that between 2020 and 2024, seventeen reported cases of sexual violence occurred in pesantren. Scholars have identified that unregulated religious authority, hierarchical discipline, and the doctrine of unquestioning obedience create conditions conducive to abuse (Marcoes 2020; Murad, Ashaf and Kartina 2025). Addressing these challenges has thus become an urgent priority for pesantren leaders, including the Nyai who are the central focus of this study.

However, recent scholarship has critically examined how pesantren structures may create conditions conducive to violence. Murad, Ashaf, and Kartina (2025) analyse how power domination of kyai, patrilineal culture, and the rules of unquestioning obedience “seemed to kill the right of the students to grow critical and only have to follow the orders of the kyai.” This hegemonic communication pattern creates opportunities for sexual violence against female students, as the combination of absolute authority vested in religious leaders, the sacred status attributed to them, and the expectation of unquestioning obedience can enable abuse while simultaneously silencing victims. Lies Marcoes (2020), a prominent Indonesian gender and Islam scholar, identifies two fundamental conditions enabling violence in pesantren: unequal power relations between teachers and students, kyai and santri, seniors and juniors, and men and women; and the justification of violence through religious narratives interpreted unilaterally by those who hold power. This analysis highlights how religious texts and traditions can be weaponised to legitimate abuse, a concern that has prompted calls for Islamic sex education programmes within pesantren to transform prevention efforts from within the tradition itself (Alfindo, Nugraha and Putri 2022).

Female leadership in pesantren

Within pesantren's patriarchal structures, the figure of Nyai occupies a complex position. Nyai are typically the wives of kyai or daughters of prominent religious families, deriving authority from their familial connections while also developing independent religious knowledge and leadership (Blackburn, Smith and Syamsiyatun 2008). Some Nyai lead their own pesantren, particularly girls’ institutions, while others share leadership with their husbands or oversee female students’ affairs. This unique positionality as religious authorities, as women, and as direct observers of female students’ daily lives offers them distinctive vantage points on issues of gender, power, and protection.

Recent scholarship has begun exploring Nyai's perspectives on violence. Research on the framework of Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan (Women's Authentic Justice), developed by Nyai Nur Rofiah, distinguishes between different levels of awareness regarding women's humanity, arguing that violence against women reflects perpetrators’ failure to recognise women as complete human beings (Khotimah 2024; Rofiah 2020). This indigenous Islamic feminist lens, emerging from within the pesantren tradition itself, offers analytical resources that are simultaneously theologically grounded and attentive to women's experiences.

Studies of women's leadership in Asian religious contexts more broadly have revealed similar dynamics of women navigating patriarchal structures while advocating for other women. Research on female migrants in China's urban villages, for example, demonstrated how self-help groups enabled women to move from the private sphere to collective resistance against oppression, combining practical and strategic gender needs (Liu 2017). This pattern women transforming their communities from within resonates with the potential role of Nyai as both religious authorities and advocates for female students’ protection within their institutions.

Research gap

Despite growing attention to gender-based violence in pesantren, the perspectives of female leaders remain significantly underrepresented in academic literature. Most studies focus on male-dominated structures of authority or analyse cases through external frameworks (Arifin et al. 2024). This study addresses this gap by positioning Nyai not as subjects to be studied through external lenses, but as knowledge producers whose perspectives offer unique insights into prevention. Their positionality as religious authorities, as women, and as direct observers of students’ daily lives enables them to articulate prevention strategies that are simultaneously theologically grounded, gender-sensitive, and practically oriented.

Furthermore, this study contributes to the broader field of Asian women's studies by examining how female religious leaders in Indonesia navigate tradition and transformation. As research on Asian women's empowerment has demonstrated, understanding women's agency requires attention to how they “negotiate conflicting experiences, mitigate the alienation that empowerment and education processes can trigger, and maintain their new identities and aspirations” (Amin 2018: 184). The Nyai in this study exemplify this negotiation, working within Islamic frameworks to advance protection for female students while maintaining fidelity to their religious traditions.

Theoretical framework

This study is guided by an integrative theoretical framework combining three complementary perspectives: the concept of Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan (Women's Authentic Justice) as developed by Nyai Nur Rofiah, feminist institutionalism, and the preventive socialisation approach to gender-based violence. This integrative framework responds to calls in Asian women's studies for approaches that are “attentive to the complexity and multidimensional nature” of women's experiences (Amin 2018: 184) and that avoid the “victim-agent dichotomy” in representing women's agency (Kim 2013: 7).

Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan (women’s authentic justice)

Nyai Nur Rofiah's framework of Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan offers a distinctive Indonesian Islamic feminist lens for analysing violence against women. This framework distinguishes between three levels of awareness regarding women's humanity: the lowest level where women are not recognised as fully human but merely as sexual objects; the middle level where women's humanity is acknowledged but subordinated to men's interests; and the highest level where women's full humanity including their physical, emotional, spiritual, and intellectual dimensions is recognised and respected (Rofiah 2020). Applying this framework, violence against women reflects perpetrators’ failure to recognise women's complete humanity, reducing them to objects for exploitation (Khotimah 2024). At the highest level of awareness, the protection of women aligns with the higher objectives of Islamic law (Maqashid Shariah), particularly the preservation of life (Hifz an-Nafs) and the preservation of dignity (Hifz al-'Ird).

This framework is particularly valuable for this study because it emerges from within the Indonesian Islamic tradition, offering an indigenous analytical lens rather than an externally imposed one. As Kim (2013: 8) argues in her methodological reflection on representing marriage migrants’ agency, feminist research on Asian women must attend to “the politics of knowledge” and avoid “cultural colonisation or discursive domination.” Rofiah's framework, developed by a Nyai herself, provides precisely such an indigenous analytical tool.

Feminist institutionalism

Feminist institutionalism examines how gender norms and power relations are embedded within institutional structures, rules, and practices (Mackay, Kenny and Chappell 2010). This perspective illuminates how pesantren, as gendered institutions, distribute authority, resources, and legitimacy differently to men and women. It also reveals how informal norms, such as expectations of female obedience and male protectiveness, shape institutional dynamics alongside formal rules (Chappell and Waylen 2013; Lowndes 2014).

Feminist institutionalism is particularly useful for analysing how Nyai navigate, challenge, and potentially transform gendered power relations within pesantren. Feminist institutionalism illuminates how gendered expectations, such as those embedded in pesantren's formal rules and informal norms, shape the ways Nyai exercise authority and navigate institutional constraints (Chappell and Waylen 2013; Mackay, Kenny and Chappell 2010). Understanding how Nyai operate within and against these gendered institutional expectations is essential for comprehending their approaches to violence prevention.

Preventive socialisation

Research on preventive socialisation of gender violence focuses on how social interactions transmit desires and attractions that may either promote or prevent violence (Gómez 2015). This perspective emphasises that preventing gender-based violence requires transforming socialisation patterns so that violence is no longer associated with attractiveness, while egalitarian, respectful behaviour becomes valued (Racionero-Plaza et al. 2021). Within the pesantren context, this framework directs attention to how religious teachings, peer interactions, and adult modelling shape students’ understandings of desirable relationships (Adib and Mujahidah 2021).

Integrative application

These three frameworks are integrated throughout this study's analysis, each illuminating a distinct dimension of prevention while complementing the others’ limitations. Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan provides an indigenous Islamic feminist lens attuned to local theological and cultural contexts, anchoring the analysis in concepts that resonate within pesantren communities. Feminist institutionalism illuminates the structural dynamics of gender and power within pesantren, moving the analysis beyond individual intentions to the institutional arrangements that enable or constrain prevention. Preventive socialisation focuses attention on the daily interactions through which cultural norms are transmitted and potentially transformed. Together, they enable a nuanced analysis of Nyai's perspectives that is simultaneously attentive to theology, institutional dynamics, and cultural transformation—an approach that responds to the methodological complexities of researching women's agency in Asian contexts (Kim 2013).

Materials and methods

Research design

This study employed a qualitative research design using semi-structured in-depth interviews. This approach was selected as most appropriate for capturing the nuanced perspectives of Nyai, allowing informants to articulate their understandings, experiences, and strategies in their own terms while ensuring systematic coverage of key topics across interviews (Crouch and McKenzie 2006). The qualitative approach aligns with established traditions in Asian women's studies research, which has frequently employed in-depth interviews to explore women's lived experiences and agency (Amin 2018; Kumar et al. 2023; Liu 2017).

Informant selection

Informants were selected through purposive sampling, with criteria including: serving as a pengasuh (caregiver/leader) of an Islamic boarding school; female; minimum five years of leadership experience; and willingness to participate in extended interviews. Four Nyai meeting these criteria were recruited from different pesantren across Central Java, East Java, and West Java, ensuring geographical diversity and variation in institutional contexts (see Table 1). The sample size of four is appropriate for in-depth qualitative inquiry focused on accessing ‘hard-to-reach’ elite informants (Crouch and McKenzie 2006) and is consistent with sample sizes in published qualitative studies in Asian women's studies (Amin 2018; Kumar et al. 2023).

Data collection

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews guided by a protocol addressing ten themes: meaning of violence prevention; daily educational practices; risky situations; power relations; response to cases; protection of vulnerable students; changes and impacts; cultural challenges; future role of pesantren; and supporting policies and documents. The interview protocol was developed based on the theoretical frameworks and refined through pilot testing.

Interviews were conducted in Indonesian language, audio-recorded with informants’ informed consent, and subsequently transcribed verbatim. Interview durations ranged from sixty to ninety minutes. Following each interview, field notes were prepared documenting contextual observations and initial analytic impressions. This approach to data collection follows established practices in qualitative research on Asian women's experiences (Amin 2018; Kumar et al. 2023).

Ethical considerations

This study adhered to established ethical principles for research involving human participants. All informants received clear information about the study's purpose, their right to withdraw at any time, and how their data would be used. Informants provided written informed consent prior to interviews.

Written informed consent was obtained from all informants for their participation in this study and for the publication of their identifiable information, including their names and direct quotes, in this article. The consent was documented on the interview sheets. Therefore, informants’ real names are used in this manuscript with their explicit permission, and no anonymization has been applied to their identities.

All data are stored securely with access limited to the research team. Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of Universitas Negeri Semarang. Following Kim’s (2013) methodological reflections on representing women's agency, particular attention was paid to ensuring that informants’ voices were represented authentically and that their narratives were not reduced to either victimhood or agency in simplistic ways. Member checking was employed to verify interpretations with informants.

Data analysis

Data analysis followed thematic analysis procedures as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). Analysis proceeded through six phases: familiarisation with data through repeated reading of transcripts; generating initial codes; searching for themes; reviewing themes; defining and naming themes; and producing the final analysis. Coding was conducted manually, with themes developed inductively from informants’ accounts while also informed by theoretical frameworks.

To enhance trustworthiness, findings were shared with informants for member checking (Birt et al. 2016), and peer debriefing was conducted with colleagues familiar with the research context. Additionally, following Kim’s (2013) emphasis on reflective practice, the research team engaged in ongoing discussion about how their positionality shaped data collection and analysis.

Researcher positionality

As researchers examining gender and violence in Islamic educational contexts, we acknowledge our positionality as outsiders to pesantren communities while also sharing informants’ commitment to preventing violence and promoting gender justice. Our team includes both male and female researchers, with diverse backgrounds in Islamic studies, education, and gender studies. Throughout the research process, we maintained reflexive awareness of how our positionality shaped data collection and analysis, engaging in ongoing dialogue with informants about interpretations and remaining attentive to alternative readings of the data. No generative AI tools were used in the analysis or writing of this manuscript.

Results

Analysis of interview data revealed six major themes addressing Nyai's perspectives on preventing gender-based violence in pesantren: theological foundations of prevention; daily practices of respect and care; identification of structural risks; reimagining power relations; challenges of cultural transformation (including intergenerational dynamics); and visions for institutional change.

Theological foundations of prevention

All four Nyai grounded their understanding of violence prevention in Islamic theological principles, articulating prevention not merely as compliance with state regulations but as religious obligation (see Table 2). This theological framing represents what Rofiah (2020) would identify as the highest level of awareness of women's humanity, recognising female students as complete human beings deserving of dignity and protection.

Nyai AQ offered the most elaborate theological framework, locating prevention within Maqashid Shariah. She explained that violence prevention is a concrete manifestation of Hifz an-Nafs (preservation of life) and Hifz al-'Ird (preservation of honour and dignity). For her, pesantren is a place for purifying the soul, and if violence or abuse occurs, the primary function of pesantren has been violated (Interview 1). This framing positions violence prevention as integral to pesantren's core mission of spiritual purification, not as an external imposition. The concepts of preserving life and preserving dignity provide indigenous Islamic justifications for protection that resonate within pesantren culture (Auda 2008; Bawono et al. 2025). Nyai Alfi further characterised prevention as a religious mandate, describing it not as mere compliance with state regulations but as a Jihad Kemanusiaan (humanitarian jihad) a struggle to protect human dignity and to safeguard the trust that Allah entrusts through the students (Interview 2). This linguistic choice challenges potential accusations that prevention efforts represent Western or secular impositions, instead rooting them firmly in Islamic values of human dignity.

Nyai Hj. RE similarly emphasised the connection between prevention and pesantren's fundamental mission, stating that violence prevention is part of the pesantren's vision and mission and is a mandate of moral education and moral responsibility to create a safe, dignified learning environment based on Islamic values (Interview 3). For her, prevention is inseparable from pesantren's core work of moral education, a framing that positions safety as a prerequisite for, rather than a distraction from, religious formation. Nyai ABI offered a complementary perspective focused on education as empowerment, explaining that the meaning of preventing sexual violence and bullying is to educate students about all matters and values that help them become individuals who can reject violence in any form (Interview 4). This approach positions students as active agents rather than passive recipients of protection, resonating with Amin’s (2018) emphasis on women's agency and empowerment in Asian contexts. Meanwhile, Nyai FS integrated institutional commitment with formal mechanisms, defining prevention as a serious effort from the pesantren to educate all members of the pesantren family caregivers, ustadz, teachers, staff, and students strengthened by having standard operating procedures or regulations that protect students from sexual violence and bullying (Interview 5).

Daily practices of respect and care

Nyai described multiple daily practices through which they cultivate respectful relationships and prevent violence, operating at the levels of curriculum, institutional culture, and interpersonal interaction. These practices represent what preventive socialisation theory identifies as the transformation of cultural norms through daily interaction (Gómez 2015).

All four Nyai emphasised the importance of systematically teaching classical Islamic texts on ethics and character. Although the pesantren have both male and female students, the Nyai confirmed that the teaching of ethics texts applies to all students regardless of gender. Nyai RE noted that every afternoon, students are taught ethics books such as Adabul Alim wa Mutallim, Taisirul Kholaq, and Akhlaqul Banin (Interview 6). The regular, scheduled teaching of these texts ensures that ethical formation is systematically integrated into daily routine, providing students with conceptual resources for understanding respectful relationships. Nyai Alfi Qonita articulated the underlying philosophy behind this textual study, explaining that the main doctrine is that knowledge will not enter a heart that is arrogant or a heart that hurts its brother or sister (Interview 7). This doctrine creates theological stakes for respectful behaviour: students who mistreat peers risk not only interpersonal consequences but also spiritual deprivation, as their mistreatment blocks the reception of the knowledge they seek.

Beyond textual learning, Nyai described how communal living itself becomes a vehicle for cultivating solidarity. Nyai Alfi characterised life in pesantren as forcing students to share space, food, and privacy, which she described as a “laboratory of tolerance” (Interview 8). She explained that through practices like communal work and eating together from one tray, they deliberately erode individualism and cultivate a sense of shared destiny (Interview 9). These practices transform the necessity of sharing limited resources into opportunities for character formation. Nyai ABI similarly emphasised that traditions of mutual help and gotong royong (collective cooperation) in cleaning and group study foster a sense of mutual need, which in turn nurtures mutual appreciation and respect (Interview 10). Nyai Fathiyatus Sa'adah added that daily practices include continuous education and socialisation regarding regulations, role modelling by caregivers so students can see what boundaries must be respected, and creating a sense of comfort and safety (Interview 11).

Nyai Fathiyatus also highlighted the critical importance of creating safe communication channels, explaining that caregivers must become figures with whom students feel safe to communicate openly. If students cannot talk directly to the top leadership, there must be trusted ustadz or teachers who serve as bridges between caregivers and students (Interview 12). She further noted that the pesantren can also mobilise the gawagis (sons of the kyai) and nawaning (daughters of the kyai) as additional bridges between students and the leadership (Interview 13). This insight reveals a sophisticated understanding that not all students feel comfortable approaching leadership directly, necessitating multiple intermediary figures as safe points of contact.

All Nyai emphasised the critical importance of adult modelling. Nyai Alfi stated unequivocally that role modelling is the strongest method: kyai and ustadz must not commit verbal or physical violence. If caregivers are respectful, students will show respect; but if caregivers are authoritarian, students will imitate those patterns of violence with their juniors (Interview 14). This analysis reflects a sophisticated understanding of how violence reproduces across generations within institutions (Valls, Puigvert and Duque 2008). Nyai RE added that students are accustomed to respecting each other, guarding their speech, and solving problems through musyawarah (deliberation) (Interview 15). She also described a distinctive weekly practice: every Friday night after the recitation of Yasin and Tahlil, the pesantren holds a musafahah (mutual handshaking) involving all students, though conducted separately between male and female students in accordance with Islamic principles, to minimise hostility and provide a structured opportunity for reconciliation before conflicts escalate (Interview 16).

Identification of structural risks

Nyai demonstrated sophisticated awareness of how pesantren's institutional structures can create conditions conducive to violence. They identified multiple risk factors requiring ongoing vigilance, reflecting feminist institutionalist attention to how gendered norms become embedded in organisational arrangements (Mackay, Kenny and Chappell 2010).

All four Nyai identified hierarchical relationships between senior and junior students as among the most significant risk factors. Nyai AQ offered a detailed analysis, describing a toxic seniority culture where seniors feel entitled to bequeath the suffering they experienced to their juniors, or exploit power for personal gain (Interview 17). She identified multiple dimensions of this risk: the cultural value of respect for seniors can be misinterpreted to legitimate abuse; the delegation of disciplinary authority to seniors without clear procedures creates opportunity for violence; and practices labelled as discipline or orientation can mask abuse. Nyai RE similarly acknowledged that in her pesantren, due to a lack of supervisory staff, student security administrators sometimes still physically discipline junior high school students, despite leadership disapproval (Interview 18). Nyai Fathiyatus Sa'adah confirmed that bullying from seniors to juniors is highly potent, and that deeply embedded customs and culture have been operating outside the supervision or knowledge of caregivers for years, requiring all stakeholders to unite with one vision (Interviews 19–20).

Nyai Alfi further identified spaces and times that escape adult surveillance as particularly risky: bathrooms, laundry areas, and quiet dormitory corners become dangerous precisely because they fall outside routine monitoring, especially during rest hours or when mass activities occupy most attention (Interview 21). She also noted that overcrowding blurs physical privacy boundaries between students, and the resulting intense physical contact without adequate private space can trigger emotional friction or deviant sexual behaviour (Interview 22). Additionally, she identified communication restrictions as a risk factor: situations where students are completely prohibited from communicating with their parents without healthy mediation can trap victims by eliminating channels for seeking help (Interview 23). Nyai RE highlighted technology misuse, students sneaking mobile phones despite prohibitions, as another factor enabling abuse, noting that such devices can facilitate access to harmful content and secret communication that bypasses pesantren oversight (see Table 3).

Reimagining power relations

Nyai articulated distinctive approaches to managing power relations within pesantren, emphasising love rather than fear, professional boundaries, and accountability mechanisms efforts that represent attempts to transform gendered institutional norms from within, consistent with feminist institutionalist attention to institutional change (Mackay, Kenny and Chappell 2010).

Nyai Alfi articulated a fundamental principle: student obedience must arise from love and respect, not from fear of punishment, because relationships built on fear are toxic. They may produce compliance but at the cost of students’ psychological safety and dignity (Interview 24). She further described institutional rules prohibiting teachers and administrators from having exclusive personal relationships with specific students to avoid grooming (Interview 25), reflecting awareness of how perpetrators use special attention as a manipulation strategy.

Nyai ABI emphasised that caregivers and teachers must realise that students are not children they can order arbitrarily under the guise of takzim (respect for teachers). Rather, students are a trust (amanah) and are like biological children whose intellectual and mental well-being must both be protected. She stressed the importance of not creating too wide a gap between caregivers and students, so that students feel safe to confide (Interviews 26–27). Nyai FS insisted that the way to prevent abuse of authority is through education and enforcement of SOPs or regulations (Interview 28), reflecting a commitment to institutionalising protection through formal, transparent mechanisms rather than relying solely on individual goodwill. Nyai RE added the importance of monthly evaluations and two-way communication so that relationships remain healthy and proportional (Interview 29).

Challenges of cultural transformation

Nyai identified significant cultural challenges that complicate prevention efforts, including toxic seniority, normalisation of violence, institutional defensiveness, and significantly intergenerational tensions within pesantren leadership itself. These challenges reflect what feminist institutionalists identify as the “hidden life of institutions” the informal norms and practices that shape institutional dynamics alongside formal rules (Chappell and Waylen 2013).

Nyai Alfi identified toxic seniority culture as a persistent legacy where seniors feel entitled to bequeath suffering they endured to their juniors (Interview 30). This dynamic is common in hierarchical institutions where seniors who endured harsh treatment may feel cheated if juniors are spared, leading them to perpetuate rather than interrupt cycles of abuse. While toxic seniority primarily manifests as bullying (physical, verbal, or psychological), the same power imbalances unquestioning obedience, fear, and isolation can also create opportunities for sexual violence. The Nyai in this study addressed both as distinct but interrelated problems requiring comprehensive prevention. Nyai ABI offered a strikingly candid critique: many pesantren tend to consider violence or bullying as normal for building students’ mental strength, but the current generation of students is different from the previous generation their mental strength is not the same as people in the past, and bullying only creates a circle of violence where today's victims become tomorrow's perpetrators (Interviews 31–32). Nyai Alfi further identified institutional defensiveness as a significant barrier, noting that some circles still believe that reporting cases tarnishes the institution's reputation. She described efforts to change this mindset so that covering up cases is seen as the real shame, while opening them becomes the path to purification (Interview 33).

Intergenerational tensions

The most distinctive contribution from Nyai FS was her candid analysis of intergenerational differences. She explained that the most challenging cultural obstacle is that some people view violence in pesantren as something trivial, and a real generation gap exists between the older and younger generations within the pesantren family, marked by differing views (Interview 34). This insight reveals that the struggle to address violence is not merely between progressive outsiders and conservative insiders, but also within pesantren leadership across generational lines.

Nyai Fathiyatus described how this plays out practically: the pesantren management family must first achieve a unified view on bullying and violence prevention, but if one voice is not possible, younger caregivers can create pilot projects in one branch of the pesantren that is their territory, building demonstration projects that model alternative approaches and may eventually influence the broader institution (Interview 35). She further identified internal resistance as a significant barrier, candidly noting that many pesantren when offered training immediately decline, insisting they are already safe (Interview 36). She also observed that much violence goes unrecognised because many pesantren consider habitual practices not as forms of harassment or violence simply because they do not know yet, which is precisely the purpose of education (Interview 37). Nyai Fathiyatus's remarks apply to the prevention of both bullying and sexual violence, though her immediate concern was bullying among senior and junior students. While this study focuses on female students, the cultural challenges she identifies internal resistance and normalisation of harmful practices affect male students as well.

Visions for institutional change

Nyai articulated forward-looking visions for pesantren's role in building generations committed to non-violence, visions that reflect what Rofiah (2020) would identify as the highest level of awareness of women's humanity.

Nyai Alfi envisioned pesantren as Laboratories of Civilisation and Peace, producing graduates who understand not only the jurisprudence of worship but also the jurisprudence of humanity. This vision is empirically supported by recent research on peace-oriented pedagogy in Islamic education (Faishol et al., 2026a), as well as by studies on kyai-led prevention of violence against santri (Faishol et al., 2026b). Graduates should become agents of anti-violence in society, demonstrating that Islam is a gentle mercy for all creation, and applying the reciprocal principle of treating others as one wishes to be treated (Interview 38). Nyai ABI emphasised the need for prevention education adapted to contemporary students’ character, improved parenting styles, and spaces where children can confide (Interview 39). Nyai RE described concrete institutional mechanisms, including the formation of a Tim Pencegahan dan Penanganan Kekerasan (Team for the Prevention and Handling of Violence) (TPPK) at SMP Amanatulloh based on Indonesian government regulations, which has conducted various trainings (Interview 40). She also described complaint channels and guidance and counselling rooms where students feel safe reporting problems.

Nyai FS articulated a vision centred on creating a safe and comfortable space for students to learn, grow, and develop, implemented through clear regulations, consistent enforcement when cases arise, and continuous education to build student awareness. She insisted that caregivers, as the figures considered parents within the pesantren, must serve as role models (Interview 41). She confirmed that her pesantren has written documents such as regulations and care guidelines, although they are not yet very detailed and will be further developed. She stressed that written documents are more binding and provide a firm reference for today's era (Interview 42).

Discussion

Nyai’s perspectives as indigenous Islamic feminism

The findings demonstrate that Nyai articulate distinctive approaches to preventing gender-based violence that can be understood as forms of indigenous Islamic feminism. Their frameworks are simultaneously deeply rooted in Islamic tradition, drawing on Maqashid Shariah, classical ethical texts, and concepts like amanah (trust), and explicitly protective of female students’ dignity and safety (Rofiah 2020).

This indigenous character distinguishes their approach from secular feminist frameworks that may be perceived as foreign impositions within conservative religious contexts. By grounding prevention in concepts like preservation of life and preservation of honour, Nyai Alfi makes the case for safety using terms that resonate within pesantren culture. Her characterisation of prevention as a “humanitarian jihad” (Jihad Kemanusiaan) is particularly striking, appropriating a concept sometimes associated with violence and redeploying it in service of protection. This linguistic choice challenges potential accusations that prevention efforts represent Western or secular impositions, instead rooting them firmly in Islamic values of human dignity.

The concept of Keadilan Hakiki Perempuan (Women's Authentic Justice) developed by Nyai Nur Rofiah provides theoretical language for understanding this approach. When Nyai articulate prevention in theological terms, they are enacting the highest level of awareness of women's humanity, recognising female students as complete human beings deserving of dignity and protection, not merely as objects of male authority or repositories for traditional values.

This finding resonates with broader scholarship in Asian women's studies that emphasises the importance of understanding women's agency within their own cultural frameworks rather than imposing external feminist categories. As Amin (2018: 184) argues, Asian women's empowerment involves “negotiating conflicting experiences” and “maintaining new identities and aspirations” within existing cultural structures. Similarly, Kim’s (2013) methodological reflections on representing marriage migrants’ agency caution against the “victim-agent dichotomy,” urging researchers to attend to the nuanced ways women exercise agency within constraint.

The inclusion of Nyai FS representing a younger generation of leadership, demonstrates that this indigenous feminist consciousness is not static but evolving. Her emphasis on written regulations, SOPs, and formal complaint mechanisms reflects engagement with contemporary governance frameworks while maintaining commitment to Islamic values. Her definition of prevention as a comprehensive effort involving “all members of the pesantren family” reinforced by “SOPs or regulations” suggests that indigenous Islamic feminism is capable of incorporating modern institutional approaches without losing its authentic character.

Addressing structural violence through institutional transformation

The Nyai's analyses demonstrate sophisticated awareness of how institutional structures can enable violence. Their identification of multiple risk factors reflects understanding that prevention requires addressing systemic conditions, not merely punishing individual perpetrators (Marcoes 2020; Nurhayati et al. 2022).

This structural awareness aligns with feminist institutionalist analysis of how gender norms become embedded in organisational rules, practices, and resource allocations (Mackay, Kenny and Chappell 2010). When Nyai Alfi critiques the delegation of disciplinary authority to seniors without clear procedures, she identifies how informal institutional arrangements can create opportunities for abuse. When she describes efforts to transform the paradigm from “covering up cases is the real shame” to transparency, she addresses how institutional culture can either protect or abandon victims.

The strategies Nyai describe for transforming power relations represent efforts to reshape institutional dynamics at multiple levels. Nyai Alfi's emphasis on relationships built on “love and respect” rather than fear, Nyai ABI conceptualisation of students as “a trust” and “like biological children,” and Nyai FS insistence on “enforcement of SOPs or regulations” collectively represent systematic approaches to institutional transformation (Chanifah et al. 2025).

Nyai FS emphasis on creating “communication bridges” through trusted intermediaries represents an innovative institutional response to the challenge of power distance. By intentionally cultivating multiple access points for students to voice concerns, she distributes the responsibility for listening and creates redundancy in protection mechanisms. This approach acknowledges that not all students will feel comfortable approaching the top leader directly, and institutionalises alternative pathways for seeking help.

This finding resonates with research on women's collective action in Asian contexts. Liu’s (2017) study of female migrants’ self-help groups in China found that creating spaces for women to share experiences and support one another was essential for resisting oppression and stigma. Similarly, the multiple communication channels described by Nyai FS create institutionalised spaces for students to seek help.

Preventive socialisation through daily practice

The daily practices Nyai describe can be understood as forms of preventive socialisation (Gómez 2015; Racionero-Plaza et al. 2021). This approach aligns with broader educational research emphasizing the cultivation of tolerance and ecological-cultural awareness as foundational to social harmony. As Wasino et al. (2020) demonstrate in their study of social science education in North Java, the systematic integration of cultural ecoliteracy and tolerance-building in school curricula significantly contributes to students' capacity for respectful coexistence—a finding that resonates with the pesantren-based prevention strategies articulated by the Nyai in this study. Through these practices, pesantren shape students’ understandings of respectful relationships, their expectations of how authority should be exercised, and their sense of collective responsibility for community well-being.

The emphasis on adult modelling as the strongest method reflects understanding that students learn not primarily from explicit instruction but from observation of how those with power behave. When authority figures model respectful interaction, they provide templates students internalise and eventually reproduce with their own juniors (Valls, Puigvert and Duque 2008). Nyai Alfi's observation that “if caregivers are authoritarian, students will imitate those patterns of violence with their juniors” demonstrates sophisticated understanding of how violence reproduces across generations.

The practice of weekly musafahah (mutual handshaking) following religious recitation described by Nyai RE is particularly interesting as a form of preventive socialisation. By creating structured opportunities for reconciliation, this ritual normalises the repair of relationships before conflicts escalate into violence. It communicates that conflict is expected and manageable, and that community members bear responsibility for maintaining harmonious relationships.

Nyai FS emphasis on continuous education and socialisation of regulations “conducting education, whether through training or frequent socialisation, regarding regulations” reflects understanding that prevention requires not just having rules but actively and repeatedly communicating them. This addresses the risk that institutional policies may exist on paper but remain unknown or uninternalised by those they are meant to guide.

Navigating tradition and transformation: generational dynamics

The Nyai's accounts reveal ongoing tensions between preserving valued traditions and transforming practices that enable violence. This tension is evident in discussions of seniority, where the cultural value of respect for seniors is acknowledged as important while its misinterpretation to legitimate abuse is criticised. Similarly, discussions of discipline reveal efforts to maintain appropriate accountability while eliminating physical punishment (Adib and Mujahidah 2021).

Nyai FS candid analysis of intergenerational differences represents a significant contribution to understanding how change happens (or is impeded) within traditional religious institutions. Her identification of the generation gap within pesantren leadership itself reveals that the struggle over violence prevention is not simply between progressive outsiders and conservative insiders, but is an internal debate across generational lines.

This finding resonates with broader literature on institutional change, which recognises that generational turnover can be a crucial mechanism for transforming organisational culture (Scott 2014). Younger leaders, socialised in different historical contexts and exposed to different discourses, may bring different sensibilities and priorities to their leadership roles. Nyai ABI observation that “the current generation of students is different from the previous generation” similarly reflects awareness of generational shifts.

Nyai FS strategic response to this challenge creating “pilot projects in one branch of the pesantren that is their territory” represents a sophisticated change management approach. Rather than attempting to transform entire institutions overnight (which risks triggering resistance), younger leaders can demonstrate alternative approaches on a smaller scale, creating models that may eventually influence broader institutional practice. This “demonstration project” strategy respects the reality of intergenerational differences while creating space for innovation.

Her critique of internal complacency “don't need it, we are already safe” further illuminates the challenges of institutional change. Even when external resources and training are offered, institutions may resist, believing themselves already adequate. This suggests that effective intervention requires not just providing resources but also cultivating institutional recognition of need what organisational theorists might call “readiness for change” (Weiner 2009). Her recognition that “many pesantren consider something that has become a habit not as a form of harassment” underscores the critical role of education in transforming cultural perceptions.

Implications for policy and practice

These findings carry significant implications for policy and practice in pesantren and similar religious educational institutions, particularly in Asian contexts where religious and cultural traditions shape institutional dynamics.

First, they suggest the importance of engaging female leaders in prevention efforts. Nyai occupy unique structural positions, holding religious authority while observing and responding to female students’ experiences. Their perspectives offer insights that male leaders may not access and that external consultants cannot provide (Komnas Perempuan 2025). As Nyai FS emphasised, prevention requires “serious effort from the pesantren to educate all members of the pesantren family.”

Second, effective prevention must address institutional structures, not merely individual behaviour. Efforts focused solely on punishing perpetrators or educating students will be insufficient if they do not also address senior-junior power dynamics, surveillance gaps, overcrowding, and other structural risk factors Nyai identified (Murad, Ashaf and Kartina 2025). The multiple risk factors identified by informants, from toxic seniority to blind spots to overcrowding, demonstrate the need for comprehensive institutional analysis.

Third, prevention must be grounded in indigenous frameworks that resonate within pesantren culture. This approach is further reinforced by curriculum innovation research that demonstrates how Islamic Religious Education can be systematically designed to integrate anti-bullying values through the cultivation of tolerance, empathy, and conflict resolution skills grounded in Islamic ethics (Faishol et al., 2024). Such curriculum development not only addresses the immediate issue of peer violence but also contributes to the broader goal of shaping students' character in accordance with Islamic principles of compassion and humanity. Prevention messages framed solely in secular terms may face resistance or be perceived as foreign impositions. The Nyai's approaches offer models for articulating prevention in terms that are both authentically Islamic and protective of students’ dignity. Nyai Alfi's framing of prevention within Maqashid Shariah and as “humanitarian jihad” exemplifies this approach. This finding aligns with Kim’s (2013) methodological emphasis on avoiding “cultural colonisation or discursive domination” in representing Asian women's experiences.

Fourth, explicit institutional policies and accountability mechanisms are valuable. However, ongoing challenges highlight the gap between policy and practice that must be addressed through sustained effort, training, and cultural change (Chanifah et al. 2025). Nyai RE acknowledgment that despite rules, “sometimes the security administrators still carry out physical discipline (takzir) on junior high school students” illustrates this gap.

Fifth, and emerging from this study's expanded sample, attention must be paid to generational dynamics within pesantren leadership. Efforts to promote institutional change should identify and support younger leaders who may be more receptive to innovation, while also engaging senior leaders in ways that respect their authority and experience. Nyai FS strategic approach of creating pilot projects within younger leaders’ spheres of influence offers a practical model for navigating intergenerational differences while advancing institutional change.

Finally, these findings contribute to broader discussions in Asian women's studies about the role of religious women leaders in social transformation. As research on Asian women's empowerment has demonstrated, understanding women's agency requires attention to how they “negotiate conflicting experiences” and maintain their identities within existing cultural frameworks (Amin 2018: 184). The Nyai in this study exemplify this negotiation, working within Islamic traditions to advance protection for female students while maintaining their religious authority and institutional positions.

Conclusion

This study has examined how female Islamic boarding school leaders in Indonesia conceptualise and practise the prevention of gender-based violence in their institutions. Through in-depth interviews with four Nyai from different pesantren across Java, the research has illuminated distinctive perspectives grounded in Islamic theology, attuned to institutional dynamics, and oriented toward practical transformation.

The findings reveal that Nyai articulate prevention in terms deeply rooted in Islamic tradition: as manifestation of Maqashid Shariah's principles of preserving life and dignity, as a religious mandate of humanitarian jihad (Jihad Kemanusiaan), and as integral to pesantren's mission of moral education. They describe daily practices through which they shape students’ understandings of respectful relationships, including systematic teaching of classical ethics texts, cultivation of solidarity through shared activities, adult modelling of respectful behaviour, and creation of safe communication channels.

Nyai demonstrate sophisticated awareness of how institutional structures can enable violence, identifying multiple risk factors requiring ongoing vigilance, including senior–junior power dynamics, surveillance gaps, overcrowding, and communication restrictions. They articulate approaches to managing power relations that emphasise love rather than fear, conceptualise students as a trust (amanah) from God deserving of protection, and emphasise formal mechanisms such as SOPs and regulations. At the same time, Nyai candidly identify cultural challenges that complicate prevention, including toxic seniority, normalisation of violence, institutional defensiveness, and significantly intergenerational tensions within pesantren leadership. Finally, they articulate visions for transformation that position pesantren as laboratories of civilisation and peace.

The inclusion of Nyai FS, representing a younger generation of leadership, has enriched the analysis by illuminating the generational dynamics that shape institutional change. Her perspective reveals that the struggle to address violence is not merely between institutions and external critics, but also within institutions across generational lines. Her strategic response creating pilot projects within younger leaders’ spheres of influence offers a model for change that respects institutional realities while creating space for innovation.

Contributions

This study makes several contributions to scholarship. First, it addresses a significant gap in literature by centring female leaders’ perspectives on gender-based violence prevention in pesantren, amplifying voices largely absent from academic discourse. Second, it demonstrates how Nyai's approaches can be understood as forms of indigenous Islamic feminism, grounding protection in authentically Islamic frameworks that resonate within Asian cultural contexts. Third, it provides detailed empirical data on prevention practices within pesantren, offering insights for practitioners and policymakers. Fourth, it contributes to broader discussions of how religious educational institutions can address gender-based violence while maintaining fidelity to their traditions. Fifth, and distinctively, it highlights the role of generational dynamics in institutional change, suggesting that attention to intergenerational dialogue and the strategic positioning of younger leaders may be crucial for effective transformation. Finally, it contributes to the field of Asian women's studies by demonstrating how female religious leaders in Indonesia navigate tradition and transformation, exercising agency within constraint and advancing protection for women within indigenous frameworks.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. The sample size of four Nyai, while appropriate for in-depth qualitative inquiry focused on accessing “hard-to-reach” elite informants (Crouch and McKenzie 2006), limits generalisability. Informants were all from Java, Indonesia's most populous island, and may not represent experiences in other regions. The study relied on self-report, without direct observation of practices described or interviews with students who could provide complementary perspectives. Finally, as with all qualitative research, findings are shaped by researcher positionality and interpretation.

Future research directions

These limitations suggest directions for future research. Studies with larger, more geographically diverse samples could examine variation in Nyai's approaches across different pesantren contexts and regions of Indonesia. Observational research could examine how the practices Nyai describe unfold in daily institutional life. Research including student perspectives could illuminate how prevention efforts are experienced by those they aim to protect. Comparative studies examining male and female leaders’ approaches could illuminate gendered dimensions of prevention. Intervention research could examine whether and how the strategies Nyai describe can be effectively disseminated and implemented across pesantren. Finally, the generational dynamics identified in this study merit further investigation, including research on how younger leaders navigate intergenerational tensions and how institutions can foster productive intergenerational dialogue around sensitive issues like violence prevention.

Final reflections

This study opened with the metaphor of amplifying silent voices. The Nyai who participated in this research are not, of course, silent. They lead institutions, teach students, and shape communities. But their voices have been largely absent from scholarly discourse on violence in pesantren, which has focused predominantly on male leadership and structures.

What emerges when these voices are centred is not a simple story of victimisation or resistance, but a complex picture of women navigating tradition and transformation, working within religious frameworks to protect those entrusted to their care. Their approaches offer resources for prevention that are both authentically indigenous and genuinely protective. Amplifying their voices is not merely an academic exercise but a contribution to the urgent practical work of making pesantren safe for all students.

In the broader context of Asian women's studies, this research demonstrates the importance of attending to indigenous feminist frameworks and women's agency within religious institutions. As Amin (2018: 184) argues, understanding women's empowerment in Asian contexts requires attention to “the complexity and multidimensional nature of empowerment dynamics.” The Nyai in this study exemplify this complexity, exercising leadership within patriarchal structures, drawing on Islamic resources to advance protection for women, and navigating generational tensions as they work toward institutional transformation. Their voices, amplified through this research, contribute to a richer understanding of how women in Asia lead, resist, and transform the institutions they inhabit.

Notes

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai RE Kurniawati, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai ABI Izzah, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai RE, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai ABI, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai RE, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai RE, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai RE, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai ABI, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai ABI, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai Fathiyatus Sa'adah, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai RE, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai ABI, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai ABI, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai AQ, 12 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai ABI, 9 January 2026.

• Interview, Nyai RE, 30 December 2025.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

• Interview, Nyai FS, 14 February 2026.

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