Teachers’ voices and personal practical knowledge in Nepal: a qualitative study of secondary school educators in Kathmandu valley

Abstract

This qualitative study explored how secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, use personal practical knowledge (PPK), shaped by Nepal's socio-cultural, institutional, and educational contexts, to guide classroom practices, pedagogical decision-making, and student engagement. Drawing on semi-structured interviews and reflective journals from 28 teachers across public, private, and community schools, the study identified how prior experiences, personal beliefs, reflective strategies, and contextual factors shape instructional choices. Findings reveal that PPK functions as a dynamic, situated framework enabling teachers to adapt lessons, manage classrooms, and engage students effectively, while professional identity and adaptive competence develop through iterative reflection and experiential learning. School culture, administrative support, and socio-cultural contexts significantly influence the enactment of PPK, with supportive environments enhancing teacher autonomy and instructional flexibility. The study highlights the importance of fostering reflective practice, integrating contextual knowledge, and strengthening professional development to promote effective, student-centered teaching in Nepalese secondary education. Future research could examine longitudinal development of PPK and cross-regional variations.

Introduction

Teacher knowledge is widely acknowledged as a critical factor influencing classroom practices, student engagement, and learning outcomes. Beyond formal pedagogical frameworks, teachers draw upon personal experiences, beliefs, and reflective insights to shape their instructional decisions, a concept commonly referred to as personal practical knowledge (Budziszewska and Stojek, 2026; Caudle et al., 2024). In secondary education, understanding how teachers’ lived experiences inform their classroom practices is particularly important, given the complex social, cultural, and academic demands faced by educators (Badia and Becerril, 2016; Chang, 2024). In Nepal, secondary school teachers encounter a diverse array of challenges, including large class sizes, limited teaching resources, and socio-cultural expectations, yet research on how their personal knowledge influences pedagogical decision-making remains scarce (Oliver et al., 2018).

Personal practical knowledge (PPK) is a construct that captures the nuanced ways teachers integrate beliefs, reflections, and contextual understanding into daily teaching practices. Dogan et al. (2016) conceptualize PPK as knowledge that is situated, evolving, and deeply connected to teachers’ experiences both inside and outside the classroom. Empirical studies have highlighted the role of PPK in promoting adaptive teaching strategies, fostering reflective practice, and shaping professional identity (Hedges and Gibbs, 2005; Li and Harfitt, 2018). For example, a qualitative study in South Korea found that secondary teachers who engaged in reflective journaling and peer discussion reported improved instructional adaptability and student-centered planning (Kim, 2019). Similarly, research in the United States indicated that teachers’ prior experiences in informal educational settings strongly influenced their approaches to differentiated instruction and classroom management (Nasri et al., 2023).

Reflective practice is central to the development of PPK, allowing teachers to critically evaluate their beliefs, pedagogical choices, and classroom interactions (Ercan Dursun et al., 2025; Ogunniyi, 2007). In Nepal, studies suggest that reflective practice is inconsistently applied, with teachers often relying on rote methods or externally imposed curricula rather than systematic reflection (Borrero et al., 2016). For example, a survey of 312 secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley revealed that only 41% regularly engaged in structured reflection on lesson planning or student outcomes, despite widespread recognition that reflection enhances instructional quality (Dhami, 2025; Ghimire and Maharjanb, 2015; Kambutu et al., 2025). This gap between theoretical understanding and practical reflection underscores the need to examine teachers’ PPK as a source of instructional decision-making.

Globally, qualitative research approaches have proven effective in uncovering the lived experiences of educators and the ways their personal knowledge shapes teaching. Narrative inquiries, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions provide rich data on teachers’ reflections, belief systems, and pedagogical reasoning (Alumbungu and Mpofu, 2025; Hirsch, 2012). For example, a study in India employed narrative interviews with 45 secondary teachers to explore how socio-cultural values influenced classroom interactions and lesson design, revealing that personal beliefs about student potential directly affected the use of collaborative learning strategies (Mikeska et al., 2021). In the Philippines, research on science teachers showed that personal teaching experiences combined with contextual knowledge guided experimentation choices and assessment practices, highlighting the role of PPK in bridging policy mandates and classroom realities (Mulpeter et al., 2026).

In addition to individual reflection, teachers’ PPK interacts with institutional and community contexts, influencing pedagogical choices. Social, cultural, and organizational factors, including school culture, administrative support, and parental expectations, shape how teachers apply their knowledge (Clandinin et al., 2009; Garrahy et al., 2005). In Nepal, secondary educators often navigate traditional hierarchical structures and limited professional development opportunities, which can constrain the expression of personal knowledge and reflective practice (Koirala, 2023). Research conducted in Kathmandu schools indicated that teachers who integrated contextual understanding into their lesson plans, such as incorporating local examples or culturally relevant content, experienced higher student engagement and learning outcomes (Rana, 2024; Rana et al., 2022).

Despite growing recognition of PPK's importance, few studies in Nepal have systematically examined how secondary teachers’ beliefs and reflections inform instructional decisions in varied classroom contexts. Most existing research focuses on curriculum implementation, teacher training, or student performance metrics, leaving the processes through which personal knowledge shapes practice largely unexplored (Khanal, 2022; Ong et al., 2019). Addressing this gap is critical for informing teacher education, professional development programmes, and policy interventions aimed at enhancing classroom effectiveness.

Personal practical knowledge is inherently context-dependent because teachers’ beliefs, instructional approaches, and reflective practices are shaped by the social, political, economic, institutional, and cultural environments in which they are educated and employed. In Nepal, secondary education is influenced by centralized curricular structures, socio-cultural diversity, resource disparities, and evolving expectations regarding student-centered pedagogy. These contextual realities affect how teachers interpret curriculum mandates, exercise professional autonomy, and engage with students in everyday classroom practice. Therefore, situating this study within Kathmandu Valley is essential for understanding both the relevance and the limitations of the findings in relation to other educational settings.

This study therefore seeks to explore the voices and lived experiences of secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley, with a particular focus on how their personal practical knowledge influences instructional decision-making, classroom strategies, and engagement with students. By employing qualitative methods to capture teachers’ reflections, beliefs, and narratives, the research aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the dynamic interplay between individual knowledge, professional practice, and contextual factors.

Aim

This study aims to examine how secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley use their personal practical knowledge to inform classroom practices, pedagogical decision-making, and engagement strategies.

Research questions

• How do secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley articulate their personal beliefs, experiences, and reflections in shaping classroom practices?

• In what ways does personal practical knowledge influence teachers’ instructional decision-making and student engagement strategies?

• How do contextual factors, including school culture, professional support, and socio-cultural expectations, interact with teachers’ personal knowledge to influence classroom practices?

Methodology

Research area

This study was conducted in selected secondary schools within Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, to examine how teachers’ personal practical knowledge informs classroom practices, instructional decision-making, and student engagement strategies. Kathmandu Valley was chosen due to its concentration of secondary education institutions representing a mix of public, private, and community schools, which provide a range of teaching contexts and pedagogical approaches. The valley's schools face diverse challenges, including large class sizes, resource limitations, and socio-cultural expectations, making it an appropriate setting to explore how teachers integrate personal experiences and reflective insights into their teaching (Dhami, 2025). Secondary schools in Kathmandu Valley vary in size, curriculum offerings, and administrative structures. Public schools often follow centrally mandated curricula with limited professional development opportunities, while private and community schools sometimes provide more flexibility for teachers to adopt innovative or student-centered practices (Bist and Kandel, 2025). By selecting schools across different types and socio-economic contexts, this study sought to capture a comprehensive understanding of how personal practical knowledge operates in varied educational environments. Schools were purposively selected from Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and surrounding peri-urban areas to represent a diversity of school types, administrative structures, socio-economic contexts, and teaching conditions. The final sample included 12 secondary schools comprising four public schools, four private schools, and four community schools. Because personal practical knowledge develops through lived experiences and professional socialization, the socio-cultural and institutional characteristics of Kathmandu Valley were considered central to the study design. Teachers working in this region are influenced by specific educational policies, community expectations, school governance structures, linguistic diversity, and resource conditions that shape reflective practice and pedagogical decision-making. Contextualizing the study setting therefore supports interpretation of how PPK is constructed and enacted within Nepalese secondary education.

Research informants

Participants were secondary school teachers actively engaged in classroom teaching in Kathmandu Valley. To be eligible, teachers had to meet one of the following criteria: a minimum of three years of teaching experience, involvement in curriculum implementation or lesson planning, or participation in professional development initiatives that encouraged reflective practice. This ensured that informants had substantial experience with both routine instructional tasks and reflective engagement with teaching. The study employed purposive and snowball sampling to identify suitable participants. School principals and coordinators were initially contacted to provide introductions to potential teacher participants. Invitations were sent explaining the purpose of the study, emphasizing its focus on teachers’ experiences and beliefs, and outlining voluntary participation and confidentiality measures. In total, 28 teachers participated in the study, including 16 females and 12 males, teaching across disciplines such as mathematics, science, social studies, and languages. Participants represented a range of teaching experience from three to 25 years, providing a breadth of perspectives on how personal practical knowledge develops over time.

The distribution of participants across school types was intentionally designed to capture diverse institutional contexts and teaching experiences within Kathmandu Valley secondary education. The study included teachers from 12 secondary schools: four public schools, four private schools, and four community schools. Among the 28 participants, 10 teachers were recruited from public schools, nine from private schools, and nine from community schools. The sampling was purposive rather than statistically proportional, with the aim of ensuring representation from varied educational settings, administrative structures, and socio-economic contexts. Each participating school contributed between two and three teachers depending on staff availability and willingness to participate. The participant group included 16 female teachers and 12 male teachers, representing disciplines such as mathematics, science, social studies, Nepali language, English language, and health education. This diversity enabled the study to capture a broad range of perspectives on how personal practical knowledge develops and operates across different subject areas and institutional environments.

Data saturation was used as the guiding principle for determining the final sample size and concluding participant recruitment. During ongoing data collection and concurrent analysis, emerging codes and categories were continuously compared across interviews. After approximately the 24th interview, no new substantive codes or conceptual categories were identified. Subsequent interviews (n = 4) were conducted to confirm redundancy and ensure completeness of thematic coverage. These final interviews reinforced existing themes rather than generating new insights, indicating that thematic saturation had been reached. The decision to stop recruitment was therefore based on informational redundancy and the depth of recurring patterns across public, private, and community school contexts.

Data collection

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and reflective journals to capture both the articulated beliefs of teachers and their ongoing reflections on classroom practice. Semi-structured interviews were chosen because they allow for in-depth exploration of participants’ experiences while maintaining flexibility to follow the flow of conversation (Braun and Clarke, 2019; McCartney et al., 2023).

The reflective journals constituted a structured complementary data source aimed at capturing teachers’ ongoing reflections on classroom experiences. Participants were asked to maintain brief weekly reflective entries over a period of approximately eight weeks. A guiding prompt sheet was provided, encouraging reflection on classroom challenges, successful teaching strategies, student responses, and instances where instructional adjustments were made. Teachers were not restricted to a fixed format, but common prompts included: “What went well in your teaching this week?”, “What challenges did you face in student engagement?”, and “What changes did you make during or after teaching a lesson?” In total, 28 teachers contributed reflective entries, with variation in frequency and length depending on individual engagement. These journals were used not only as descriptive accounts but also as analytical data, enabling triangulation with interview narratives. During analysis, journal entries were coded alongside interview transcripts and compared to identify convergence and divergence between reported beliefs and enacted classroom practices. This allowed the reflective journals to function as a bridge between retrospective accounts (interviews) and real-time pedagogical reflection.

The interview guide was developed based on the research aim and questions, focusing on teachers’ beliefs about teaching, reflections on classroom experiences, strategies for engaging students, and perceptions of contextual influences such as school culture, administrative support, and community expectations. Interviews began with introductory questions about participants’ educational background, professional experience, and teaching context. Subsequent questions probed deeper into specific classroom scenarios, the role of personal experiences in shaping instructional choices, and examples of reflective practices such as lesson adaptation or assessment decisions.

To enhance transparency and methodological rigor, the interview guide included open-ended questions designed to elicit teachers’ beliefs, experiences, and reflective practices related to classroom decision-making. Sample interview questions included: “Can you describe a classroom situation where your personal experiences influenced how you taught a lesson?”, “How do you decide when to modify your teaching strategies during a lesson?”, “What role does reflection play in improving your teaching practices?”, and “How do school culture and community expectations affect your instructional decisions?” Follow-up probing questions were used to clarify meanings, explore examples in greater depth, and capture contextual nuances in participants’ responses.

Interviews were conducted between October and December 2025, each lasting approximately 50 to 90 min. Most interviews were conducted in Nepali, reflecting participants’ comfort and fluency, while a few were conducted in English when preferred. Prior to each interview, participants were informed about the objectives of the study, confidentiality procedures, voluntary participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. With consent, interviews were audio-recorded, and in cases where participants preferred not to be recorded, detailed field notes were taken.

Data analysis

The collected data were analyzed using thematic analysis, a widely accepted method for identifying patterns and themes within qualitative data (Braun and Clarke, 2006). This approach allows researchers to systematically interpret participants’ experiences while remaining closely connected to the data, facilitating insight into the nuances of personal practical knowledge in teaching. All interviews were transcribed verbatim, and were digitized to facilitate coding. Transcripts and were read multiple times to ensure familiarity and identify preliminary patterns. Initial coding involved line-by-line examination of transcripts and reflective journals to identify meaningful units of text related to beliefs, reflections, pedagogical decision-making, student engagement strategies, and contextual influences. Codes were inductively generated from participants’ narratives and iteratively refined throughout the analytical process. Codes were then grouped into broader categories such as “reflective decision-making,” “contextual adaptation,” and “belief-informed instructional strategies.”

Interviews conducted in Nepali were transcribed verbatim in the original language to preserve participants’ meanings, expressions, and contextual nuances. The transcripts were subsequently translated into English by the researcher, who is fluent in both Nepali and English. To ensure fidelity and accuracy, selected transcripts were independently reviewed by a bilingual qualitative research colleague familiar with Nepalese educational contexts. Any discrepancies in interpretation or translation were discussed and resolved collaboratively to maintain consistency and preserve the intended meanings of participants’ narratives. Particular attention was given to culturally specific expressions and educational terminology during translation to minimize loss of contextual meaning.

Themes were refined iteratively to ensure alignment with both participants’ narratives and the three-dimensional Personal Practical Knowledge framework, particularly ensuring that each theme reflected temporality, sociality, and place dimensions. Data from interviews and journals were triangulated to strengthen validity, providing complementary insights into both reported beliefs and enacted practices. The final themes included: 1) the role of prior experiences and personal beliefs in shaping lesson planning and classroom interaction, 2) reflective strategies used by teachers to adapt teaching to students’ needs, 3) the influence of school culture and administrative support on personal practical knowledge, and 4) the integration of socio-cultural and community contexts into instructional decisions. Data from interviews and reflective journals were analyzed in an integrated manner using a triangulation approach. Initially, both datasets were coded separately to preserve their contextual integrity. Following this, codes were compared across sources to identify convergence, complementarity, and divergence. This cross-source comparison allowed for a more nuanced understanding of teachers’ personal practical knowledge in both retrospective (interview) and in-the-moment reflections.

The coding process followed an inductive, iterative, and collaborative approach. Initially, two members of the research team independently coded a subset of transcripts line-by-line to identify meaningful units related to beliefs, experiences, reflective practices, instructional decision-making, and contextual influences. This independent coding allowed for comparison of interpretations and identification of overlaps and divergences in meaning-making.

Following the initial coding stage, the researchers met to discuss coding similarities and differences. Through this process, codes were refined, merged, or redefined to ensure conceptual clarity and consistency. Disagreements were resolved through discussion, repeated reference to original transcripts, and consensus-building rather than statistical inter-coder reliability measures. The agreed coding framework was then applied to the full dataset. Throughout this process, codes remained flexible and were continuously reviewed as new insights emerged. An audit trail was maintained documenting coding decisions, category development, and theme refinement to ensure transparency and dependability. This collaborative and iterative approach strengthened the trustworthiness of the analysis by ensuring that findings reflected shared interpretive agreement grounded in participants’ accounts.

Analytical framework

This study was guided by Connelly and Clandinin's (1990) framework of personal practical knowledge, emphasizing the integration of personal beliefs, lived experiences, and contextual understanding into professional practice (Maaranen and Stenberg, 2017; Wei et al., 2023). The framework highlights that teacher knowledge is situated, evolving, and relational, shaped by interactions with students, colleagues, and the broader school community. Applying this framework allowed for a nuanced analysis of how teachers’ beliefs and experiences inform instructional decisions, lesson adaptations, and engagement strategies, while also accounting for the influence of institutional and community contexts. The analytical framework facilitated understanding of the cyclical and reflective nature of personal practical knowledge. By examining concrete classroom experiences, teachers’ reflective observations, and subsequent instructional adjustments, the study captured the dynamic process through which teachers continuously develop and apply personal knowledge in practice. This approach also allowed exploration of the interplay between individual knowledge and systemic factors, such as curriculum mandates, resource availability, and socio-cultural expectations.

In this study, Connelly and Clandinin's (1990) Personal Practical Knowledge framework was operationalized using its three-dimensional narrative inquiry space: temporality (past, present, future experiences), sociality (personal beliefs, emotions, and social influences), and place (contextual and institutional settings). These dimensions were used as analytic sensitizing concepts during coding and theme development. Specifically, teachers’ prior experiences and career histories were coded under temporality, their beliefs, values, and pedagogical judgments under sociality, and school culture, classroom conditions, and community influences under place. This structure allowed systematic interpretation of how personal practical knowledge is formed and enacted across time, relationships, and context.

The researchers acknowledge their positionality as Nepalese education and social sector practitioners with long-standing engagement in research, training, and community-based programs. One of the researchers is affiliated with Nepalese academic and civil society organizations working in education and human rights contexts, which provided contextual familiarity with school systems in Kathmandu Valley. While this familiarity facilitated rapport building and deeper understanding of teachers’ narratives, it also carried the potential for interpretive bias due to pre-existing assumptions about teaching practices, reflective capacity, and institutional constraints. To address this, reflexivity was practiced throughout the research process. The researchers maintained reflective memos during data collection and analysis to critically examine how personal experiences, professional background, and expectations might influence interpretation of participants’ accounts. Regular peer discussions were conducted to compare interpretations and challenge assumptions. Additionally, analytic decisions were continuously revisited to ensure that themes remained grounded in participants’ narratives rather than researcher preconceptions. These strategies were used to enhance transparency, credibility, and trustworthiness of the findings.

Ethical statements

This study involved human participants (secondary school teachers). Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Review Committee of Divya Jyoti Community Organization, Hetauda, Nepal. All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation. They were informed about the study's purpose, voluntary nature of participation, and their right to withdraw at any stage without consequence. Confidentiality was strictly maintained by anonymizing all transcripts using participant codes (e.g., T1–T28), and all identifying institutional details were removed from the dataset. In addition, data protection measures were applied throughout the research process. Audio recordings and transcripts were stored securely and accessed only by the research team. Reflexive practices were used to minimize researcher bias, and participant anonymity was preserved in all reporting stages.

Results

The findings reveal that secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley articulated diverse perspectives on how personal practical knowledge (PPK) informs their classroom practices, pedagogical decision-making, and engagement strategies. Participants highlighted the influence of prior experiences, personal beliefs, reflective practice, and contextual factors in shaping daily teaching, revealing a complex interplay between individual knowledge and institutional, cultural, and social environments. Across schools, teachers described a range of strategies to adapt curricula, engage students, and navigate classroom challenges, underscoring the dynamic and situated nature of PPK. Four primary themes emerged: 1) the role of prior experiences and personal beliefs in lesson planning and classroom interaction, 2) reflective strategies employed to adapt teaching to student needs, 3) the influence of school culture and administrative support, and 4) the integration of socio-cultural and community contexts into instructional decisions. To maintain confidentiality and anonymity, all participant quotations are presented using pseudonym identifiers (e.g., T1, T2, T3) rather than personal names or school affiliations.

Prior experiences and belief-informed instructional strategies

A prominent theme emerging from this study is the critical role of teachers’ prior experiences and deeply held beliefs in shaping their instructional strategies and classroom practices. Participants consistently highlighted that their personal histories, both educational and life experiences serve as the foundation for interpreting curriculum objectives, engaging students, and managing classroom dynamics. Teachers reported that these experiences inform not only what they teach but also how they teach it, guiding decisions around lesson pacing, instructional approaches, and classroom interactions. One senior science teacher elaborated:

“When I plan my lessons, I constantly reflect on what worked for me as a student. I draw on those memories, adjusting them to suit my current students’ abilities and learning styles.” (T14)

Several teachers described using their prior schooling experiences as a reference point for instructional design. For instance, a social studies teacher noted:

“I remember the methods that inspired me and made learning exciting. I try to bring that into my classroom, but also make it relevant for my students’ context.” (T3)

Personal beliefs about teaching and learning strongly influenced the adoption of specific pedagogical strategies. Teachers who valued student-centered and collaborative learning reported deliberately incorporating group projects, peer discussions, and inquiry-based activities even under challenging conditions such as large class sizes or rigid curricula. One language teacher explained:

“I believe students learn best when they explore ideas together. Even if I have 50 students in a class, I find ways to create small discussion groups. It's challenging, but my belief in collaborative learning guides me.” (T21)

Conversely, teachers who held more traditional views emphasized structured lectures and memorization, reflecting their belief that clear guidance and repetition are necessary for mastery. A mathematics teacher reflected:

“I think some concepts require clear steps and repeated practice. My own experience as a student showed me the value of structure, so I try to maintain that balance.” (T9)

Beyond formal teaching experiences, prior professional exposure in informal education, volunteer work, and community engagement emerged as significant contributors to instructional adaptability. One teacher shared:

“Working with local youth programs taught me to notice subtle signs when a student struggles. That insight helps me adjust my teaching immediately.” (T7)

Several participants emphasized that these experiences fostered empathy and responsiveness, allowing them to differentiate instruction and scaffold learning according to student needs. A science teacher described how her experiences as a tutor influenced her approach:

“When I worked with students one-on-one outside school, I learned that every child has a unique way of understanding. I bring that awareness into the classroom, even with 40 students at a time.” (T18)

The findings illustrate that personal practical knowledge, rooted in both prior experiences and belief systems serves as a lens through which teachers interpret curricular expectations and pedagogical mandates. This interplay between experience, reflection, and belief allows teachers to adapt their instructional strategies in ways that are contextually responsive, student-centered, and aligned with their professional values, highlighting the inseparability of experience and reflective practice in effective teaching.

A notable pattern within this theme is the contrasting ways in which personal practical knowledge (PPK) operates among teachers with different pedagogical orientations. For teachers who favored collaborative and student-centered learning, PPK functioned as an enabling framework that encouraged experimentation, flexibility, and shared meaning-making in the classroom. Their narratives suggest that prior positive learning experiences and reflective awareness of student engagement led them to view knowledge as co-constructed, thereby legitimizing group work, discussion, and inquiry-based approaches even in resource-constrained settings. In contrast, teachers who preferred structured lecture-based instruction demonstrated a more stability-oriented use of PPK, where prior experiences reinforced the perceived effectiveness of teacher-led explanation, repetition, and stepwise instruction. For these teachers, PPK operated as a form of pedagogical assurance, reducing uncertainty by privileging clarity, control, and predictability in knowledge transmission. This contrast illustrates that PPK is not a uniform cognitive resource but a differentiated interpretive lens that shapes how teachers construct “effective teaching,” revealing internal variation in pedagogical reasoning within the same contextual setting.

Reflective strategies and adaptive teaching

Beyond being a technical tool for lesson improvement, reflection in this study functioned as a mediating cognitive process through which teachers actively reconstructed their pedagogical beliefs. Rather than simply evaluating what worked, teachers used reflection to reinterpret student learning behavior, which gradually reshaped their assumptions about effective teaching. This indicates that reflection is not neutral or procedural; it is transformative, enabling shifts in pedagogical reasoning. However, this transformation was uneven. Teachers working under rigid curricular structures reported more “corrective” reflection focused on improving delivery, while those in supportive environments engaged in “reconceptualizing reflection,” where they questioned and revised underlying beliefs about teaching and learning. This tension highlights how institutional context shapes the depth of reflective practice within PPK development.

Reflective practice emerged as a central mechanism through which personal practical knowledge (PPK) operates among secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley. Participants consistently described engaging in reflective processes both during and after lessons to evaluate their instructional decisions, student interactions, and overall classroom effectiveness. Teachers highlighted that reflection allowed them to identify gaps, reconsider strategies, and adjust practices to meet students’ diverse learning needs. A social studies teacher shared:

“After each class, I spend time thinking about what worked and what didn't. I sometimes write in my journal or discuss with other teachers. This reflection helps me rethink my lesson plans and approach next time.” (T21)

Several participants emphasized the importance of structured reflection, including the use of journals, lesson notes, and post-class self-assessment. A senior mathematics teacher noted:

“I keep a small notebook where I record student responses, difficulties, and moments when an activity didn't go as planned. Over time, this helps me track patterns and refine my teaching.” (T8)

Informal reflection also played a crucial role. Many teachers described on-the-spot adaptations during lessons, drawing upon their experiences and observations of student comprehension. A science teacher explained:

“If I notice students struggling with an example, I immediately try a different explanation or relate it to something familiar in their daily lives. Reflection is continuous—it happens while teaching, not just afterward.” (T14)

Adaptive teaching was closely linked to these reflective practices. Teachers reported modifying lesson pacing, content delivery, examples, and assessment methods in response to reflective insights. A language teacher highlighted:

“Sometimes I change my examples or give additional exercises in the middle of a lesson when I realize students aren't following. Reflection tells me how flexible I need to be.” (T3)

Peer collaboration further strengthened reflective strategies. Teachers described engaging in discussions, mentoring, and informal feedback exchanges to broaden perspectives and enhance instructional practices. A social studies teacher noted:

“Talking to colleagues about challenging lessons often helps me see blind spots. I get new ideas that I might not have considered on my own, which I can then test in my classroom.” (T19)

Participants also emphasized the iterative nature of reflection. By combining individual insights, peer feedback, and experiential knowledge, teachers continuously refined their teaching approaches. A mathematics teacher remarked:

“Every time I reflect, I learn something new about my students, about how they respond to activities, and about my own teaching style. That ongoing reflection helps me adapt and improve gradually.” (T11)

The findings show that reflective strategies are both a tool for immediate instructional adjustment and a mechanism for deepening PPK. Teachers’ ability to engage in structured and spontaneous reflection, combined with collaborative dialogue, supports adaptive teaching practices that address diverse student needs, optimize engagement, and foster ongoing professional growth. Reflection thus functions as a dynamic, cyclical process, integral to the development and application of personal practical knowledge in Kathmandu Valley secondary schools.

Influence of school culture and administrative support

The findings also suggest that school culture does more than enable or restrict practice; it actively shapes the internal logic through which teachers interpret their professional agency. In hierarchical environments, teachers tended to normalize constraint and adjust their expectations of innovation, indicating an adaptive form of compliance embedded within their PPK. In contrast, supportive schools cultivated what can be understood as “expanded pedagogical agency,” where teachers redefined instructional success in more flexible and student-centered terms. This demonstrates that institutional context does not simply influence behavior externally but becomes internalized within teachers’ practical knowledge, shaping how they perceive what is possible or appropriate in teaching.

The study revealed that school culture and administrative support play a crucial role in shaping how teachers apply personal practical knowledge (PPK) in their classrooms. Participants consistently highlighted that the norms, expectations, and leadership style within their schools either enabled or constrained their ability to adapt teaching methods, experiment with new strategies, and respond to students’ diverse needs. A senior science teacher from a private school shared:

“Our principal encourages experimentation in teaching. I feel confident trying new methods, incorporating student projects, and adjusting lessons as needed. There's trust that we know what works best for our students.” (T12)

Several teachers emphasized that in schools with supportive leadership, there was greater freedom to personalize instruction and adopt innovative practices. A mathematics teacher explained:

“Because our administration trusts us, I can modify examples, introduce collaborative activities, or integrate technology. It makes me feel my professional judgment matters.” (T5)

Conversely, participants working in schools with hierarchical structures and rigid curricula described significant limitations. They reported that centrally mandated lesson plans, strict supervision, and lack of flexibility often restricted adaptive teaching. A social studies teacher reflected:

“Sometimes I know an adjustment would help my students, but I cannot make it because the curriculum is very strict. I have to follow it exactly, which is frustrating when I see students struggling.” (T8)

Teachers also highlighted that limited resources and lack of professional development hindered the application of PPK. One language teacher noted:

“When we don't have access to materials, workshops, or peer discussions, it's hard to reflect on our practices or try new approaches. Support from the school is essential to make teaching effective.” (T17)

Administrative support was closely linked to the promotion of reflective practice. Participants described that workshops, mentoring programs, and encouragement for peer collaboration enhanced their ability to integrate personal experiences and beliefs into instruction. A social studies teacher remarked:

“Professional development sessions give us ideas and confidence. Talking with colleagues during these programs helps me see different ways to approach the same topic, which I then adapt in my classroom.” (T22)

Moreover, school culture influenced teachers’ motivation and willingness to engage in adaptive teaching. Positive, collaborative environments encouraged experimentation, risk-taking, and student-centered methods, while rigid or punitive cultures discouraged flexibility. A senior science teacher emphasized:

“When teachers feel trusted and supported, they reflect more, adapt more, and ultimately help students learn better. Supportive culture makes all the difference.” (T14)

The findings indicate that the organizational context, including leadership, resources, professional development, and collaborative norms significantly affects how PPK is enacted. Teachers’ ability to reflect, adapt, and innovate is closely tied to the degree of support and trust provided by the school, demonstrating that effective classroom practice depends not only on individual knowledge but also on enabling institutional conditions.

Integrating socio-cultural and community contexts

Importantly, socio-cultural responsiveness in teaching was not merely an act of contextual adaptation but a negotiation between competing value systems. Teachers continuously balanced curriculum expectations with local cultural norms, resulting in a form of pedagogical mediation. This suggests that PPK operates as a balancing mechanism where teachers reconcile institutional knowledge with lived community realities. However, this mediation was not always seamless; some teachers experienced tension when progressive pedagogical approaches conflicted with conservative community expectations. These tensions reveal that contextual knowledge is not simply integrated into practice but actively negotiated within teachers’ decision-making processes.

A recurring theme in participants’ accounts was the strong influence of socio-cultural and community contexts on instructional decisions and classroom practices. Teachers consistently reported that understanding local traditions, student backgrounds, language diversity, and family expectations helped them design more meaningful and responsive lessons. Participants emphasized that personal practical knowledge (PPK) is not limited to individual beliefs or professional experiences but is deeply connected to the social realities in which students live and learn. A mathematics teacher explained:

“I try to use examples from local markets, agriculture, and daily household activities so students can easily connect with mathematical concepts. When lessons reflect their real life, they become more interested and confident.” (T5)

Several teachers highlighted that awareness of cultural norms and family expectations helped them manage classrooms more effectively and build stronger relationships with students. A social studies teacher shared:

“Understanding students’ cultural background helps me address sensitive topics carefully. I try to respect community values while still encouraging critical thinking and open discussion.” (T10)

Teachers also described how socio-cultural understanding supported inclusive and student-centered practices. A language teacher noted:

“Students come from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, so I adjust my teaching methods to ensure everyone feels comfortable participating. Sometimes I use local stories and examples to make lessons more engaging.” (T18)

Engagement with parents and community members was another important aspect of integrating socio-cultural knowledge into teaching. Participants reported that regular communication with families helped them understand students’ learning challenges, home environments, and emotional needs. A science teacher explained:

“When I talk with parents, I learn about students’ home situations and responsibilities. This helps me adjust assignments and expectations so they can manage both school and family duties.” (T14)

Some teachers also emphasized the importance of community involvement in supporting student learning. A mathematics teacher remarked:

“Community interaction gives me insight into students’ daily struggles and strengths. I can then design lessons that reflect their experiences and encourage participation.” (T7)

Balancing community expectations with modern pedagogical approaches was identified as a key challenge. Teachers working in conservative settings reported the need to carefully introduce new teaching strategies while respecting cultural sensitivities. A social studies teacher stated:

“I try to introduce new ideas gradually, ensuring that both students and parents feel comfortable. Respecting culture while promoting learning is essential.” (T22)

Overall, findings indicate that PPK is relational and contextually grounded, shaped by continuous interaction with students, families, and communities. Teachers actively integrate socio-cultural knowledge into their instructional decisions, enabling them to create inclusive, relevant, and supportive learning environments that enhance student engagement and promote meaningful educational outcomes.

Interplay between PPK and pedagogical decision-making

The data further indicate that pedagogical decision-making is not only guided by PPK but structured by competing interpretive frames within it. Teachers do not simply apply experience-based knowledge; they continuously prioritize between competing forms of “what works,” such as efficiency vs. engagement or curriculum compliance vs. responsiveness. This reveals that PPK operates as an internal decision hierarchy where teachers evaluate, filter, and sometimes override their own experiential knowledge depending on situational demands. These micro-level negotiations explain why teaching practices differ significantly even within similar institutional settings.

The findings indicate that personal practical knowledge (PPK) plays a central and continuous role in shaping teachers’ pedagogical decision-making across lesson design, instructional strategies, classroom management, and assessment practices in Kathmandu Valley secondary schools. Participants consistently reported that their personal beliefs, prior experiences, and reflective insights directly influenced how they planned lessons, selected teaching methods, sequenced content, and responded to student learning needs. Teachers emphasized that PPK serves as a guiding framework that helps them translate curriculum objectives into meaningful classroom practices while maintaining flexibility in response to real-time challenges. A mathematics teacher explained:

“If I notice some students are struggling, I change how I explain the concept or provide extra practice. That comes from understanding their learning pace and reflecting on what might help them improve.” (T11)

Several participants highlighted that pedagogical decisions were rarely fixed and often evolved through ongoing reflection and classroom observation. A science teacher shared:

“Sometimes a lesson plan looks perfect on paper, but when I enter the classroom, students respond differently. I then adjust the pace, change examples, or introduce group work so that learning becomes more effective.” (T6)

Teachers also described how PPK shaped questioning strategies and student engagement techniques. A language teacher noted:

“I ask different types of questions depending on students’ confidence and ability. Some need simple questions to build confidence, while others benefit from critical thinking questions. This comes from experience and reflection.” (T18)

Classroom management decisions were also influenced by PPK. Participants reported that their understanding of student behavior, cultural norms, and classroom dynamics helped them create supportive learning environments. A social studies teacher remarked:

“Managing a classroom is not only about discipline. It is about understanding students’ emotions, backgrounds, and motivations. My experience helps me decide when to be strict and when to be supportive.” (T9)

Assessment practices further demonstrated the interplay between PPK and pedagogical decision-making. Teachers explained that while standardized examinations remained important, they often integrated formative assessments, peer evaluation, and project-based tasks to better understand student progress. A mathematics teacher stated:

“I use small quizzes, group tasks, and project work to check understanding, not just final exams. It helps me see who is improving and who needs more support.” (T15)

Another teacher emphasized balancing institutional expectations with personalized evaluation:

“We must follow the official assessment system, but I try to include activities that show students’ creativity and practical understanding. That makes assessment more meaningful.” (T21)

Participants also noted that PPK enabled them to make quick instructional decisions during unexpected situations, such as limited time, mixed-ability classrooms, or lack of teaching materials. A science teacher explained:

“When resources are limited, I rely on my experience and creativity to adjust lessons. Sometimes simple demonstrations or discussions work better than complex materials.” (T4)

The findings show that PPK acts as a bridge between theoretical curriculum requirements and real classroom practice. Teachers continuously draw on their beliefs, experiences, and contextual understanding to make informed pedagogical decisions, ensuring that instruction remains responsive, flexible, and student-centered while meeting institutional expectations and learning goals effectively. PPK in this study therefore operates as a mediating interpretive system rather than a fixed knowledge base. It shapes how teachers define what counts as effective pedagogy, how they interpret student responsiveness, and how they justify instructional choices under similar constraints. This indicates that pedagogical diversity observed in classrooms is not only a response to contextual limitations but also a reflection of internally constructed professional logics grounded in lived experience.

Professional identity and adaptive competence

Professional identity development in this study emerges as an outcome of repeated alignment between reflective experience and perceived classroom success. However, this alignment is not linear. Teachers described moments where adaptive decisions that improved student engagement initially conflicted with their earlier beliefs about control or structure. Over time, repeated positive reinforcement of adaptive strategies led to gradual belief restructuring, suggesting that identity formation is an iterative reconfiguration of PPK rather than a simple accumulation of experience. This highlights identity as both stable and fluid, shaped by ongoing negotiation between tradition and innovation in teaching practice.

Participants in this study consistently described how engagement with personal practical knowledge (PPK) contributed to the development of their professional identity and adaptive competence as secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley. Teachers emphasized that continuous reflection, contextual awareness, and accumulated experiential knowledge strengthened their confidence, sense of responsibility, and pedagogical agency over time. Many participants explained that their professional identity was not shaped only by formal training but evolved through daily classroom experiences, interactions with students, and ongoing reflection on their teaching practices. A senior science teacher stated:

“Through years of teaching and reflecting, I now understand what works best in my classroom. This experience gives me confidence to try new methods and support students in different ways.” (T2)

Several teachers highlighted that PPK helped them develop a clearer sense of their role as facilitators of learning rather than mere content deliverers. A language teacher explained:

“With experience, I started seeing myself not just as a teacher but as a guide who helps students think, question, and learn independently. Reflection helped me build this professional identity.” (T16)

Participants also noted that adaptive competence grew gradually through exposure to diverse classroom situations. Teachers reported that dealing with mixed-ability groups, limited teaching resources, and socio-cultural expectations required constant adjustment and flexibility. A mathematics teacher shared:

“Every class is different, and students have different learning speeds. My experience helps me adjust teaching methods and provide extra support where needed. This adaptability makes me more confident as a teacher.” (T7)

Teachers further emphasized that PPK encouraged professional autonomy and independent decision-making. A social studies teacher remarked:

“When I reflect on my teaching and understand my students well, I feel more confident making decisions about lesson planning and classroom activities without depending entirely on fixed guidelines.” (T10)

Another participant highlighted the importance of experiential learning in building professional judgment:

“Real classroom experience teaches us how to handle unexpected situations. Over time, we learn to respond calmly and choose the best approach for each situation.” (T21)

Participants also pointed out that collaboration with colleagues and participation in professional development activities strengthened their adaptive competence and professional identity. A science teacher explained:

“Discussing teaching strategies with colleagues and attending training programs helps me improve my skills and gain new perspectives, which strengthens my confidence and identity as a professional educator.” (T14)

Moreover, teachers indicated that PPK helped them maintain motivation and commitment to student-centered teaching despite challenges. A language teacher stated:

“When I see students improving because of the strategies I adapted, it reinforces my belief in my role and motivates me to continue learning and improving.” (T18)

The findings demonstrate that engagement with PPK plays a vital role in shaping teachers’ professional identity and adaptive competence. Through reflection, experiential learning, and contextual understanding, teachers develop confidence, autonomy, and professional judgment, enabling them to respond effectively to classroom challenges and support diverse student learning needs in dynamic educational environments.

Implications for teacher development

The findings highlight the importance of strengthening teacher education and professional development programs to better recognize and support the role of personal practical knowledge (PPK) in classroom practice. Teacher development initiatives should create structured opportunities for reflective practice, peer collaboration, mentorship, and context-based learning so that educators can effectively translate their experiences and beliefs into adaptive teaching strategies. Encouraging reflective journaling, collaborative lesson planning, and engagement with community contexts can enhance professional identity, instructional flexibility, and student-centered practices.

At the institutional level, schools and policymakers need to provide supportive environments through flexible curricula, access to teaching resources, and regular professional development opportunities. Reducing structural constraints such as rigid administrative control and high student-teacher ratios can further enable teachers to apply PPK effectively in diverse classroom settings. Integrating experiential learning, problem-solving approaches, and reflective dialogue into teacher training can bridge the gap between theory and practice. Overall, a supportive and collaborative educational environment that values teachers’ experiences and contextual understanding is essential for promoting adaptive competence and improving the quality of teaching and learning.

Discussion

This study moves beyond describing teacher experiences to highlight the underlying mechanisms through which personal practical knowledge (PPK) is developed and enacted. The findings suggest that PPK is not a static repository of experience but a dynamic interpretive system through which teachers continuously construct meaning in response to classroom complexity. Central to this system are three interconnected processes: reflective restructuring of beliefs, contextual negotiation of pedagogical choices, and internal prioritization of competing instructional demands. These mechanisms explain why similar teaching conditions produce different instructional outcomes across teachers, emphasizing that PPK operates as a situated decision-making framework rather than a uniform knowledge base.

The findings collectively suggest that personal practical knowledge (PPK) in Nepalese secondary education operates as a dynamic interpretive system that mediates between institutional demands, classroom realities, and teachers’ lived experiences. Rather than functioning as a static repository of experiential knowledge, PPK emerges as a continuously evolving framework through which teachers interpret curriculum expectations, construct pedagogical meaning, and negotiate classroom constraints. This system is shaped by three interdependent forces: experiential learning (prior experiences and beliefs), reflective regulation (ongoing self and peer reflection), and contextual mediation (school culture and socio-cultural environment). Together, these elements position teachers not only as implementers of curriculum but as adaptive knowledge constructors who actively reconstruct pedagogy in response to situational demands. This conceptualization extends existing understandings of PPK by highlighting its role as a mediating structure that integrates identity formation, adaptive competence, and contextual responsiveness within Nepalese secondary education.

This study aimed to examine how secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley use personal practical knowledge (PPK) to inform classroom practices, instructional decision-making, and student engagement strategies. The findings indicate that teachers’ beliefs, prior experiences, reflective practices, and contextual understanding are central to their professional decision-making, highlighting a dynamic interplay between individual knowledge and institutional, socio-cultural, and community factors. Using the framework of personal practical knowledge (Chen et al., 2017), the study reveals that PPK functions as a guiding lens through which teachers adapt curricular mandates to meet the diverse needs of students, develop professional identity, and strengthen adaptive competence.

The findings should be interpreted within the broader socio-cultural and institutional context of Nepalese secondary education. Teachers’ personal practical knowledge is shaped not only by individual experiences and reflective practices but also by the educational structures, professional expectations, cultural norms, and resource conditions specific to Kathmandu Valley and Nepal more broadly. As a result, the transferability of the findings to other geographical contexts may vary depending on differences in teacher preparation systems, school cultures, policy environments, and socio-economic conditions.

The role of prior experiences and beliefs in shaping instructional strategies emerged as a prominent finding. Teachers frequently drew on their own schooling, professional exposure, and informal educational experiences to design lessons, select teaching methods, and scaffold learning for students. Similar observations are reported in Abdelhafez (2014), who found that secondary educators’ personal experiences directly influence the adoption of student-centered strategies and differentiation practices. Likewise, Schaefer and Clandinin (2019) observed that reflective journaling and peer discussions strengthened teachers’ instructional adaptability by linking prior experiences with real-time classroom decisions. In the current study, participants described using both formal training and informal learning experiences to guide lesson planning, demonstrating how PPK mediates between theoretical knowledge and practical classroom application.

Reflective practice was identified as a key mechanism enabling adaptive teaching. Teachers engaged in both structured reflection, such as journaling and post-class review, and spontaneous in-class adjustments, which aligns with the work of Nasri et al. (2023) on reflective practice as central to professional growth. The iterative nature of reflection allows teachers to continuously refine pedagogy, assessment methods, and classroom management strategies. Similarly, Kambutu et al. (2025) highlighted that teachers in the Kenya relied on reflective observation to reconcile policy directives with classroom realities. The findings of this study extend this understanding by demonstrating that reflection, combined with peer collaboration, enhances adaptive competence, allowing teachers to respond flexibly to mixed-ability classrooms and resource constraints. Importantly, the study suggests that reflection functions at multiple cognitive levels. At a surface level, it supports technical improvement of lessons, but at a deeper level, it reshapes teachers’ epistemological beliefs about teaching and learning. This transformation is contingent on contextual support; without institutional encouragement, reflection remains procedural rather than transformative. This explains the variation in adaptive teaching observed across schools, linking reflective depth directly to institutional conditions.

The influence of school culture and administrative support further underscores the relational nature of PPK. Teachers working in supportive environments reported greater autonomy to experiment with instructional strategies, whereas hierarchical, resource-limited schools constrained professional agency. These findings resonate with Ramos (2001), who emphasize that institutional conditions, including leadership trust, collaborative culture, and access to professional development, significantly affect the enactment of teachers’ knowledge. In Kathmandu, supportive school environments were critical for translating PPK into meaningful classroom practices, reinforcing the idea that adaptive competence requires enabling systemic conditions in addition to individual reflection. These findings indicate that institutional environments shape not only teacher behavior but also the boundaries of pedagogical imagination. When institutional norms are rigid, teachers tend to internalize limitation as part of their professional reasoning, which narrows the scope of PPK. Conversely, supportive environments expand interpretive flexibility, allowing teachers to reinterpret curriculum mandates creatively. This suggests that institutional context is embedded within PPK itself rather than operating externally to it.

Integration of socio-cultural and community contexts emerged as a central dimension of PPK. Teachers adapted lesson content, examples, and engagement strategies to reflect students’ local realities, cultural norms, and family expectations. This practice aligns with Kamali (2025), who reported that socio-cultural awareness informs pedagogical choices and collaborative learning strategies in Indian secondary schools. In the present study, such contextualized teaching not only increased student engagement but also facilitated inclusive learning, demonstrating that PPK is inherently relational and situated within broader social and cultural ecosystems.

Finally, the study highlights that PPK directly contributes to professional identity formation and adaptive competence. Teachers reported enhanced confidence, autonomy, and pedagogical judgment as a result of reflective engagement and experiential learning, consistent with Levin et al. (2013), who argue that personal knowledge and reflective practice are central to professional growth. Participants emphasized that the iterative interplay of experience, reflection, and contextual understanding enables them to respond effectively to classroom challenges, balancing curricular requirements with students’ needs.

Therefore, the findings illustrate that PPK serves as a bridge between theoretical training and practical classroom application, mediating professional judgment, adaptive competence, and student-centered pedagogy (Li et al., 2019). In the Nepalese context, the study underscores the need for teacher development programs, school policies, and professional learning environments that cultivate PPK, promote reflective practice, and provide institutional support to optimize teaching effectiveness in diverse classrooms. By situating PPK within the combined influences of prior experience, reflection, institutional support, and socio-cultural contexts, the study contributes to a nuanced understanding of how teachers’ personal knowledge informs pedagogy, shaping professional identity, adaptive competence, and ultimately student learning outcomes in Kathmandu Valley secondary schools.

Limitations of the study

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. First, the data rely primarily on self-reported accounts from teachers, which may be influenced by recall bias or social desirability bias. Second, the absence of direct classroom observations limits the ability to triangulate reported practices with actual teaching behavior. Third, the study is geographically limited to selected secondary schools within Kathmandu Valley, which may restrict the transferability of findings to rural or under-resourced contexts in Nepal. Fourth, as a cross-sectional study, it captures teachers’ experiences at a single point in time and does not examine how personal practical knowledge evolves longitudinally. Finally, although reflective journals were used, participation in reflective writing may vary across individuals, potentially affecting the depth of data across participants.

Conclusion

This study explored how secondary school teachers in Kathmandu Valley use personal practical knowledge (PPK) to guide classroom practices, pedagogical decision-making, and student engagement. In conclusion, the findings indicate that teachers’ instructional strategies are strongly shaped by their prior experiences, personal beliefs, reflective practices, and contextual understanding. PPK serves as a dynamic framework through which educators translate curriculum objectives into responsive, student-centered teaching while adapting to real-time classroom challenges. Reflective practice, both structured and spontaneous, emerges as a key mechanism enabling adaptive teaching, supporting continuous professional growth and instructional flexibility. School culture, administrative support, and access to professional development significantly influence the enactment of PPK, with supportive environments enhancing autonomy, experimentation, and teacher confidence. Furthermore, integrating socio-cultural and community knowledge allows teachers to contextualize learning, promote inclusivity, and strengthen student engagement. Overall, the study highlights that fostering reflective practice, enabling institutional support, and valuing teachers’ lived experiences are essential for cultivating professional identity, adaptive competence, and effective teaching in Nepalese secondary schools.

Future studies could examine how personal practical knowledge develops over time across different regions of Nepal, including rural and under-resourced schools, to explore variations in adaptive teaching strategies. Longitudinal research could also investigate the impact of structured reflective programs and professional development interventions on teacher effectiveness, student outcomes, and the sustainability of PPK-informed practices. Comparative studies between public, private, and community schools may provide deeper insights into how institutional and socio-cultural factors shape teachers’ knowledge application, offering guidance for targeted teacher education and policy initiatives.

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