AUTHOR=Melzack N. , Wills R. G. A. , Cruden A. J. TITLE=An environmental perspective on developing dual energy storage for electric vehicles—a case study exploring Al-ion vs. supercapacitors alongside Li-ion JOURNAL=Frontiers in Energy Research VOLUME=Volume 11 - 2023 YEAR=2024 URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/energy-research/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2023.1266670 DOI=10.3389/fenrg.2023.1266670 ISSN=2296-598X ABSTRACT=

Much focus of dual energy-storage systems (DESSs) for electric vehicles (EVs) has been on cost reduction and performance enhancement. While these are important in the development of better systems, the environmental impacts of system and component-level choices should not be overlooked. The current interest in EVs is primarily motivated by environmental reasons such as climate change mitigation and reduction of fossil fuel use, so it is important to develop environmentally sound alternatives at the design stage. Assessing the environmental impact of developmental and mature chemistries provides valuable insights into the technologies that need to be selected now and which to develop for the future. This paper presents a cradle-to-gate (i.e., all raw material and production elements are considered; however, the “use” phase and recycling are not) lifecycle assessment of a DESS with Li-ion and aqueous Al-ion cells and that of one with Li-ion cells and supercapacitors. These are also compared to a full Li-ion EV battery in terms of their environmental impact for both a bus and car case study. Key findings show that the use of a DESS overall reduces the environmental impacts over the vehicle lifetime and provides an argument for further development of aqueous Al-ion cells for this application.