This study was conducted to assess how viable Solar PV/T systems are under the climatic conditions prevalent in Jamshoro, Pakistan, to determine their operational efficiency along the direct contact membrane distillation system. This study area was selected because of its favorable solar energy potential, and it is one of the most predominant methods of obtaining fresh water at a low cost in the region, which has become more prominent in the regions where a viable amount of solar energy is accessible for obtaining fresh water. Figure 3 displays the integration of solar PV/T with the DCMD system for electricity and freshwater production.

The simulation framework is divided into three phases: The first phase is to measure the temperature of the hot feed in brackish or salty water; the second phase is to compute the temperature difference between the hot and cold phases of the membrane; and the final phase is to determine the temperature of cold fresh water. The shown hybrid system in Figure 3 consists mainly of a PV/T system and a DCMD unit for the dual purpose of water purification and power production. The PV/T system utilizes solar energy to heat the working fluid, which is pumped from the storage tank (A), using brackish water. The brackish water is heated in a PV/T system, and the resulting change in temperature is then introduced into the DCMD system. The DCMD system employs three processes to purify water. Firstly, heat is transferred from the feed water to the feed/membrane interface, crossing the temperature boundary layer. Secondly, the heat is then transferred from the feed/membrane interface to the membrane/permeate interface, causing a decrease in the temperature of the membrane feed. At last, heat is transferred from the membrane/permeate interface to the permeate side, resulting in a decrease in the temperature of the membrane permeate to the interface of the bulk permeate temperature. As a result, the vapor pressure differential occurs and the temperature gradient is transformed, the increases in the temperature gradient on time force the vapor molecules across the membrane pores to travel from the hot phase to the cold phase resulting in condensation on the permeate side in the form of fresh water in the storage tank (B). The electrical energy produced by the PV/T system is used to operate the equipment in the system, such as pumps. Any surplus energy is then stored in batteries for domestic use. This stored energy serves as a reserve for domestic use, ensuring a continuous and reliable power supply even during periods of low solar irradiation. Figure 4 represents the research work methodology chart, the chart outlines the methodology followed in the research work and includes key steps, processes, and relationships considered in the study. The model considers all essential elements, such as changes in solar irradiation, feed water temperature at the initial stages, and membrane surface temperature after the flow stream. The excess heat that is released by the PV module is absorbed by the heat exchanger installed in the PV/T system in an effective manner, which enables the warm-up of the cold saline or brackish water that is being delivered to the system. After going through the heating process, the saline or brackish water gained the desired temperature to enter the DCMD system for further procedure.

The DCMD module operates by receiving a constant flow of heated saline or brackish water. Simultaneously, the condensation process is initiated by commencing cold water from the permeate side of the DCMD module. To move water vapors across the membrane, there needs to be a difference in temperature between the feed and permeate surfaces. As a result, there is a difference in the vapor pressure between the surfaces on the feed side and the permeate side, which serves to enhance the flow of water vapor. The divergence generated in water vapor travels over the membrane due to the temperature gradient, leading to the condensation process and ultimately resulting in the production of clean drinkable water. The drinkable water is subsequently maintained in the permeate tank, while the brine is consistently discarded.

Even though there are various PV/T configurations, the type that is considered for analysis is a flat-plate collector. The principal configuration of the PV/T collector is shown as a cross-sectional view in Figure 5, where G represents the solar irradiation incident on the PV/T flat-plate collector.

The operational efficiency of typical PV cells can be enhanced by implementing a fluid circulation system underneath the cell layer. This system facilitates the extraction of heat from the cells, resulting in a reduction of their operating temperature. As a result, the electrical efficiency of the cells increases. There are methods to manipulate the design of such a structure to improve its electrical or thermal efficiency. A comprehensive evaluation of the proposed Solar PV/T system was systematically carried out with special attention to various environmental and climatic factors prevalent in Pakistan. This comprehensive assessment covers many factors such as solar radiation levels, and ambient temperature, all of which play a significant role in determining system performance and suitability for Pakistan’s environment. The reason for choosing this site is Pakistan’s significant solar energy potential and the need for desalination due to limited freshwater resources. An evaluation of the PV/T system and its performance was performed using MATLAB software. Table 1 shows the design parameters that were employed in the PV/T system studies that have been conducted (Hossain et al., 2019). The PV/T collector is made up of two essential components: a photovoltaic element that generates power and a thermal collector that functions as a heat exchanger. By using energy balance equations, to determine both the efficiencies (electrical and thermal) of the PV/T module and the temperatures according to the weather conditions. The PV/T module with 250 W and 60 cells was selected for the simulation. Its width and length are 99.2 and 163.68 cm respectively. It derives analytical expressions for thermal parameters and the thermal efficiency of a PV/T collector, it is essential to develop energy balance equations for each individual component of the PV/T system. By conducting a comprehensive analysis, to determine the various temperatures within the system based on the fluctuating ambient conditions, which occur on an hourly basis.

Table 1 provides a point of reference for comprehending the attributes and capacities of the solar PV/T module used in the simulation. It assists in understanding the energy balance equations and thermal characteristics calculated for each part of the PV/T system, as well as in calculating the temperatures inside the system under changing environmental circumstances on an hourly basis. Essentially, these specifications provide a fundamental comprehension of the technical characteristics of the PV/T module, which contributes to the comprehensive analysis and simulation carried out in the research. PV/T output temperature for hot water is 55°C, after utilizing the heat exchanger the hot feed water becomes 40°C and then can be supplied to the MD system to meet the energy requirement of the system (Al-Hrari et al., 2020).

The amount of solar energy that is accessible on the PV module can be determined using Eq. 1. The energy rate included in this analysis encompasses the cumulative heat dissipation from solar cells to the surrounding environment, the total heat transfer from solar cells to the Tedlar back surface, and the rate of electrical energy (Sobhnamayan et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2019). α c   τ g   β c   G = U T   T c − T a + U b   T c − T a + η c   τ g   β c   G (1)

The heat balance equation includes various variables. This expression calculates the cell temperature of the solar PV/T system. It considers the effective transmissivity-absorptivity product, ambient temperature, and the temperatures of the cover and back surface. The temperature of the solar cells is denoted as   ′ T c ′ , while the ambient temperature is represented by   ′ T a ′ . G corresponds to the solar radiation intensity,   ′ α c ′ characterizes the absorptivity of the solar cell,   ′ β c ′ indicates the packing factor of the solar cell,   ′ τ g ′ signifies the transmissivity of the glass cover, and   ′ η c ′ quantifies the electrical efficiency of the PV module, an equation for calculating the solar cells’ temperature can be derived from Eq. 2 as follows (Xiao et al., 2019): T cell   = α τ e f f G + U t T a + U T T b s / U t + U T (2)

Tbs refers to the back surface temperature, and   ′ α τ e f f ′ represents the product of effective absorptivity and transmissivity, which is defined as follows (Naroei et al., 2018): α τ e f f = τ g α c β c + α T 1 − β c − β c η e l (3)

Eq. 3 quantifies the solar radiation effectively absorbed by the PV collector, and this is determined through the product of effective absorptivity and transmissivity. This expression defines the effective transmissivity-absorptivity product for the solar PV/T system. It incorporates the transmissivity of the cover, absorptivity of the cover, the fraction of the absorbed radiation in the cover, the absorptivity of the PV module, and the efficiency of the electrical part. This parameter is crucial for determining the overall efficiency of the solar collector.

Using Eq. 4, to determine the rate at which thermal energy is transmitted from the tedlar to the water (Sobhnamayan et al., 2014). U T T c − T b D d x = h T T b − T f D d x (4)

The temperature of the tedlar back surface can be calculated using Eq. 5 as illustrated (Sobhnamayan et al., 2014). T b = h p 1 α τ e f f G + U t T T a m b + h T T f U t T + h T (5)

By substituting the results of Equations 2–5 into Eq. 1, to get an expression for the rate at which heat is transported to the rear surface of the tedlar.

Using the equation and the boundary condition   ′   T f = T f , o u t ′ at x = L′, L is the length of fluid duck can calculate the temperature of the fluid at the outflow ‘ T f , o u t ’ (Sobhnamayan et al., 2014). T f , out = T amb + h p 1 h p 2 α τ eff G U L 1 − ⁡ exp − b F ′ U L L m ˙ C p + T f , in   exp   − b F ′ U L L m ˙ C p (6)

Equation 6 expresses the temperature of the fluid outlet from the solar PV/T system where h_p1,2 denoted the penalty factor arising from the inclusion of solar cell material, glass, and the contact between tedlar and the working fluid.

The calculation for the effective thermal energy rate in a PV/T water collector is determined as follows in Equations 7–9 (Shi and Lin, 2019). Q u = m C p T f , out   − T f , i n = F R b L h p 1 h p 2 α τ e f f G − U L T f , i n − T a (7) F R = m C p U L b L 1 − ⁡ exp   − b F ′ U L L m C p (8)

Where   ′ F R , m , and C p ′ stand, respectively, for the heat removal factor, the mass flow rate, and the heat capacity of the fluid.

The thermal efficiency of a photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) water collector can be described as follows. η t h = Q u b L G = F R h p 1 h p 2 α τ e f f − U L T f , i n − T a G (9)

The total amount of thermal energy received by the collector comprises both the sensible heat and any latent heat associated with phase changes in the fluid (air or water) passing through it. The amount of solar radiation that reaches the collection is equal to the amount of energy that the collector absorbs. Since the PV/T water collector effectively converts solar energy into useable heat, it is a more efficient and sustainable technology for generating both electricity and hot water. This is due to its high thermal efficiency.

The PV/T system can convert solar irradiance into energy via the direct use of photovoltaic cells. Accordingly, an electrical model is used to determine the relationship between ‘output current and output voltage’ and between ‘output power and output voltage’. The efficiency of energy conversion of the solar panel was evaluated based on different parameters. Additionally, the panel surface temperature and real-time solar radiation intensity (expressed in watts per square meter) were also recorded. Furthermore, alongside the ambient temperature, measurements were taken for the entrance and exit temperature of the water flow, as well as the water flow rate. The energy conversion efficacy of a solar cell describes the amount of generated electricity that can be efficiently utilized and collected. The computational methods are carried out to precisely determine the photoelectric conversion efficiency, expressed by a set of defined Equations 10–12 (Flores-Larsen et al., 2019): η e l = P max A × G (10) P e l = I × V (11) P max = I s c × V o c × F F = V m p × I m p (12)

The power output of a PV system is measured in watts. The solar energy that is absorbed by the PV modules is turned into electric energy as well as thermal energy. However, thermal energy is wasted via three modes of heat convection, conduction, and radiation.

In DCMD, the adjacent membrane that agrees with the passage of water vapor, known as the permeate side, is in direct contact with a stream consisting only of pure water (Maab et al., 2012). DCMD system uses a membrane module made from polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) flat sheet membranes that have a thickness of 120 μm and a porosity of 80%, which have been designed for use with the DCMD system. The DCMD module consists of two different flow compartments, one for the feed solution (saline or brackish water), and the other for the permeate side. Figure 6 below shows a schematic representation of the DCMD module, which has two distinct flow compartments. The dimensions of the DCMD module that was selected for modeling are 0.7 m in length, 0.2 m in width, and 0.001 m in thickness, and it has a mean pore size of 0.12 μm.

The aggregate of water vapor that passes through the membrane per unit area and time, Permeate flux is given by in Eq. 13 and coefficient for the membrane in Eq. 14 (Khayet, 2011). J m = D m * P f v − P P v (13) D m = ε τ × δ m × P D   P a i r   × M R × T (14) where   ′ J m ′ is the enter flux (kg/m²s), Dm is the distillation coefficient for the membrane.   ′ D m ′ is a parameter whose value is established by the nature of the mass transfer process occurring inside membrane pore spaces. Vapor pressure in the feed, denoted by   ′ P f v ′ and vapor pressure in the permeate, denoted by   ′ P p v ′ . The Antoine equation, which is used to calculate vapor pressures, is expressed in Equations 15, 16 (Khayet, 2011). P f v = ⁡ exp   23.328 − 3841 Tmf − 45 (15) P P v = ⁡ exp   23.328 − 3841 Tmp − 45 (16) where the temperatures   ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ denote the surface temperatures of the membrane on the feed and permeate sides, respectively in Equations 17, 18 (Khayet, 2011).

  ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ can be found by using the following equations: T m f = k m * T b p + h f / h p * T b f + δ m * h f * T b f − J m * Δ H v k m + h f * δ m + k m / h p (17) T m p = k m * T b f + h p / h f * T b p + δ m * h p * T b p + J m * Δ H v k m + h p * δ m + k m / h f (18)

Where   ′ h f ′ , is the heat transfer coefficient in the feed and h_p and h_f can be found out from Eq. 19 respectively (Martinez-Di et al., 1999). h = N u × k D h (19) where ‘k', ‘D_h’, and ‘N_u’ stand in for the mean conduction of the liquid, the hydraulic length conduction path, and the Nusselt number, respectively. In an experimental setup, the direct measurement of   ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ is unfeasible. Consequently, these temperatures are often determined by the execution of a heat balance, which establishes their correlation with the bulk temperatures. The determination of   ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ involves the analysis of coefficients of heat transfer inside the fluid boundary levels of the membrane (Maab et al., 2012). This approach was based on the characteristics of the membrane as well as the operating conditions listed in Table 2. The DCMD system is designed so that the permeate flux is driven by the difference in vapor pressure across the membrane, which is generated when a temperature difference exists between the permeate compartment and the feed compartment. Due to the difference in vapor pressure, water molecules are driven through the membrane, while the hydrophobic nature of the membrane prevents liquid water molecules from passing through.   ′ K m ′ is the thermal conductivity of the membrane, the vaporization enthalpy is denoted by   ′ ∆ H v ′ , the bulk feed temperature is denoted by   ′ T b f ′ , the permeate heat transfer coefficient is denoted by   ′ h p ′ , the bulk permeate temperature is denoted by   ′ T b p ′ , and the membrane thickness is denoted by   ′ δ m ′ . The earlier research contains the in-depth mathematical model that was used in the investigation of the DCMD system (Luo and Lior, 2016; Baghbanzadeh et al., 2017).

DCMD utilizes temperature variations to differentiate freshwater from saltwater water. The DCMD membrane system uses hydrophobic membranes to repel liquid water while allowing vapor passage, thermal gradients for evaporation and condensation, direct contact between saline and freshwater streams to improve heat and mass transfer efficiency, low pressures for energy savings, scalability for diverse applications, brackish water treatment, and moderate temperature operation. The disk and frame type membrane module used in the DCMD system consists of multiple membrane sheets stacked together with alternating feed and permeate flow compartments. The feed mixture flows through the feed compartments, while the permeate vapor flows through the permeate compartments and is condensed to produce the product water. The flat-sheet hydrophobic membrane allows only water vapor to cross through it, while rejecting salt and other impurities, resulting in high-quality product water.

The Nusselt numbers for the feed side and permeate side are calculated using Equations 20, 21 for laminar flow R e   2100 , (Dow et al., 2016). N u f = 0.027 R e f 0.8 P r f 0.4 μ b f μ m f 0.14 (20) N u p = 0.027 R e p 0.8 ⁡ Pr p ⁡ 0.33 μ b p μ m p 0.14 (21)

Where   ′ R e f ′ is the Reynolds numbers of the feedwater and   ′ R e p ′ is the Reynolds numbers at the permeate side are expressed in Eq. 22 (Iversen et al., 1997), and similarly   ′ P r f ′ and   ′ P r p ′ are Prandtl number on the feed side and permeate side in Equation 23 (Iversen et al., 1997). R e = v ρ D h μ (22) Pr ⁡ = μ C p k (23)

Where,   ′ µ ′ is dynamic viscosity,   ′ µ ′ is flowing velocity,   ′ ρ ′ is the fluid density,   ′ C p ′ is the specific heat capacity simultaneously at the feed side of the membrane and permeate side of the membrane, and   ′ D h ′ is the hydraulic diameter of the flow channel.

In the DCMD process, several heat transfer processes take place concurrently in three distinct regions: first, hotness transfer crossways the feed boundary layer in the form of convective, second, heat transfer across the film in the form of conductive, and final heat transfer across the permeate boundary layer in the form of convective, as shown in Figure 7. The heat transport processes, along with mathematical equations for each respective domain, can be briefly indicated as follows (Soomro et al., 2020).

Effective heat transfer processes are the backbone of membrane desalination, which efficiently produces freshwater. One of them is conduction, which occurs when temperature gradients cause heat to transfer across a membrane. The process of convection affects the distribution of temperatures because it includes the transfer of heat when fluids flow over a membrane. Radiation affects temperature gradients by transferring heat via electromagnetic waves. Another important factor in desalination is the latent heat of vaporization, which necessitates effective heat transfer to transition from a liquid to a vapor. To improve desalination efficiency, it is necessary to optimize these mechanisms. The process of heat transfer via the feed side is carried out by convection is expressed in Equation 24 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b). Q f = h f × T b f − T m f (24)

The   ′ Q f ′ that reflects heat transfer relates to feed. The convective heat transmit amount for the feed is symbolized as   ′ h f ′ , and can be determined using several associations depending on the stream pattern, whether laminar or turbulent (Khalifa et al., 2017). The convective heat transfer amount for the feed, relates to the convective heat transfer coefficient for the feed, The   ′ h f ′ , coefficient can be determined based on the flow pattern (laminar or turbulent). The two main processes contributing to heat transfer across a membrane are conduction through the membrane material and evaporation of latent heat due to water molecules evaporating over the membrane. Two distinct processes are responsible for the transfer of heat across a membrane: the first is the conduction of heat through the material of the membrane, and the second is the evaporation of latent heat because of water molecules evaporating over the membrane.

The evaporative heat relocation   ′ Q v ′ , can be computed expressed in Eq. 25 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b): Q v = j m × Δ H v (25)

The symbol   ′ △ H v ′ represents the enthalpy of vaporization of water, which is expressed in Eq. 26 (Yun et al., 2006). Δ H v = 1.7535 × T m f + 2024.3 (26)

The determination of conductive heat transport across the membrane is achieved by applying the Fourier law of conduction expressed in Eq. 27 (Khalifa et al., 2017). Q c = h m × T m f − T m p (27)

The   ′ h m ′ denotes the constant of the membrane, defined in Eq. 28 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b) h m = k m δ m (28) where   ′ k m ′ signifies the thermal conductivity. The entire thermal energy that moves across the membrane can be defined in Eq. 29 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b). Q m = Q c + Q v (29)

The convective heat transfer is represented in Eq. 30 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b): Q p = h p × T m p − T b p (30)

The expression for the entire warm transference through the DCMD system under steady-state circumstances is given in Eq. 31 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b). Q = Q f = Q m = Q p (31)   ′ Q ′ is the entire warm transference in the DCMD system in terms of feed, permeate and membrane side.   ′ Q t ′ is total heat transfer can be calculated using the Eq. 32 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b). Q t = U × T b f − T b p (32) where   ′ U ′ is the overall heat transfer coefficient and can be determined by applying the Eq. 33 defined as (Manawi et al., 2014): U = 1 h f + 1 k m δ m + j m × Δ H v T m f − T m p + 1 h p (33)

By using the MATLAB software to solve equations relating to energy balance, mass, and heat transfer, the performance assessment of the PV/T-DCMD system was carried out. Both the feed and permeate flows in the DCMD system were constantly moving in opposing directions. The temperature of the saline water and the temperature of the reference condenser water impacted the feed temperature.

To simulate and predict the   ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ a numerical iterative technique was adopted. Initially, the   ′ T b f and   ′ T b p ′ were assumed to represent the values for   ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ respectively. Figure 8 shows the comprehensive numerical iterative Scheme. Following the determination of   ′ T m f ′ and   ′ T m p ′ , further parameters such as   ′ Q t ′ ,   ′ U ′ , and TPC was obtained.

Solar irradiance and ambient temperature have important roles in how effectively PV/T performs. To evaluate the PV/T water system’s heat transfer characteristics and thermal efficiency, energy balance equations were solved for each component. The Jamshoro, Pakistan region has been selected to test the performance of the Solar PV/T model. The weather station at MUET, Jamshoro, has recorded temperatures for the whole month of August 2023. From April to August, Jamshoro receives a maximum of 1,000 w/m² of solar radiation, while the average figure for the rest of the year is about 722 W/m². By investigating the change in energy characteristics as a function of solar irradiation, cell temperature, and water flow rate, it has been established which of these components has the most influence on the PV/T system’s energy output. Table 3 shows the design data and climate data from the Jamshoro weather station that were utilized to assess the water temperature and cell temperature. The system can generate freshwater with a modest amount of power input. Freshwater can also be produced in rural and distant places with this technology, which is particularly useful considering the scarcity of potable water in those places.

The effects of solar irradiance and ambient temperature are crucial for a PV/T system’s performance. Solar irradiation varies hourly, reaching its highest point at noon, and this change greatly influences the system’s performance. Both the photovoltaic and thermal efficiencies are impacted by the ambient temperature. At very high temperatures, energy production is reduced, while the thermal component benefits from maintaining a temperature gradient. For the PV/T system to be designed, operated, and controlled in a way that maximizes efficiency and dependability under a wide range of climatic circumstances.

The hourly variations of multiple parameters in a PV/T system are evaluated based on varying mass flow rates of 1, 1.5, 2, 3,4, and 5 L per minute as shown in Figure 10. Because the temperature of the solar cell is higher than that of the water used for purification, there is an increase of about 20°C in the fluid’s input temperature in comparison to temperature of the close circumstances. The mass stream rate of water and the efficiency of the thermal absorber induce a significant drop in temperature in PV/T cells. The temperature of the PV/T cell decreases as cosmological energy grows. Figure 10A depicts the high PV/T water inlet/outlet temperature differential (10°C) at the 1.0 LPM flow rate. sunlight, ambient temperature, flow rate, and system layout are the key factors that affect the hourly variations in PV/T systems. Power generation and thermal energy output are both improved by exposure to high levels of solar radiation. Although thermal efficiency could improve because of steeper temperature gradients, PV cell efficiency could decline as ambient temperatures rise. The efficiency of thermal energy extraction is greatly affected by the temperature differential between the heat transfer fluid and the PV cells. A system’s performance is greatly affected by its design, which includes the type of collector, the arrangement of PV cells, and the material selection.

It is evident solar cell temperature is greater than the water temperature and there is an increase in water temperature of nearly 15°C pertaining to an ambient. As can be observed in Figure 10B, in the PV/T system the water entering and leaving temperature differential is significant (8.5°C) when the flow rate is 1.5 L per minute. The solar cell temperature is greater than the water temperature and there is an evident increase in water temperature approaching 10°C above the ambient temperature. According to the results in Figure 10C we observe that the PV/T water entering and leaving temperature differential is moderate when the flow rate is set at 2.0 L per minute. The solar cell temperature is greater than the water temperature and an increase in water temperature of approaching 4°C respecting the ambient temperature. Figure 10D illustrates that the PV/T water input and exit temperature differential is 4°C when the flow rate is 3.0 L per minute. The solar cell temperature is greater than the water temperature and an increase in water temperature of around 2.5°C respecting an ambient. Figure 10E shows that the temperature differential between the incoming and the outflow PV/T water is just 2°C at a flow rate of 4.0 L per minute and when the flow rate was adjusted on 5 L per minute the inlet and outlet temperature difference was less than 1°C and the outlet water temperature become equal or less than ambient temperature as shown in Figure 10F. These results show that the single solar PV/T system declines the performance of the DCMD system when the flow rate is increased. Comparing the input and exit temperatures of the PV/T system at varying mass flow rates, we observed that the temperature difference was increasing at low mass flow rates and decreasing at high flow rates. All the graphs illustrate that the output water temperature decreases as the flow rate increases. Therefore, it is suggested that a flow rate between 1 and 2 L per minute will be used to deliver warm water to the DCMD system to enhance the distillation process. If the flow rate is further increased from 4 L per minute to 5 or 6 L per minute on a single solar PV/T system the performance efficiency drops, and the temperature difference between the inlet and to outlet becomes equal which highly affects the evaporation efficiency of DCMD system. In other words, the warm water may not spend enough time interacting with the membrane in the DCMD system, impacting the effectiveness of the evaporation process.

The thermal performance of a PV/T system can be significantly influenced by the rate of water flow. PV/T systems integrate PV and solar thermal components to simultaneously produce electrical energy and heat. The water flow rate, particularly in relation to the heat transfer fluid’s circulation within the system, has a significant impact on thermal performance through numerous factors. The thermal performance of a PV/T system is greatly affected by the water flow rate, finding the ideal flow rate is critical for balancing the advantages of greater flow rates such as improved thermal efficiency and protection of PV cells from overheating with issues like energy consumption and environmental impact. For each PV/T application, system designers usually do extensive simulations and analysis to find the optimal water flow rate. The appropriate water flow rate can change depending on the characteristics of the environment and the seasons. When it comes to selecting the most appropriate flow rate, system researchers need to take into consideration a variety of aspects, including the ambient temperature, the amounts of solar radiation, and the specific requirements of the project.

As depict from Figure 11, temperature of the water that is discharged steadily decreases as the volume of water that is flowing through the system increases. Increasing the flow rate from 1 to 2 L per minute results in a hotter water supply while simultaneously enhancing efficiency.

The improvement of thermal efficiency can be achieved by raising the flow rate which mitigates the temperature increase in the PV/T accumulator to affect the execution of the DCMD system. If the flow rate is too low, the PV/T system overheats, reducing both thermal and electrical efficiency. If the flow rate is too high, it does not allow sufficient heat transfer time within the PV/T system. The electrical efficiency of PV/T systems improved when the stream rate was improved from 1 to 4 L per minute. As such, finding the right balance through flow rate adjustment is crucial for maximizing the overall system efficiency of the integrated system because membrane distillation needs warmer water at continuous intervals to increase freshwater production. The performance of solar PV/T systems on distinct flow rates is shown in Figure 12. There are many different aspects to consider while analyzing the impact that PV/T efficiencies have on various mass flow rates. To obtain the highest possible level of overall efficiency for the system, it is necessary to strike a balance between the system’s thermal and electrical performance. The researcher of the system makes use of simulations and studies to ascertain the mass flow rate that is most efficient in accordance with the needs of the system and the circumstances of the environment.

In PV/T-DCMD integrated systems, achieving optimum system efficiency is of greatest significance, which requires flow rate modifications to be made with a careful balance in consideration. This is especially important for membrane distillation, which may increase its output of freshwater by taking advantage of intermittently rising water temperatures at regular intervals based on the changes in solar radiation.

Evaporation efficiency (EE) and specific thermal energy consumption (STEC) intake were researched and contrasted with one another with the intent of evaluating the DCMD system’s overall energy efficiency. The Eq. 34 that is described and provided below represents an approach that can be used to calculate the EE: (Khalifa et al., 2015). E E % = j m × H U T b f − T b p × 100 (34)

Feed temperature was increased from 36°C to 48°C in 4°C increments while all other operational parameters remained constant. The effect of feed temperature on EE is evident in Figure 13. The EE increased from 35.08% to 42.01% when the feed temperature was raised from 30°C to 45°C. Evaporation efficiency improves when feed temperature rises because of the larger temperature difference between the input and output fluids.

In addition, the STEC for producing freshwater varies with the temperature of the feed water. The source of STEC is is expressed in Eq. 35 (Soomro et al., 2022). STEC = Q t J m × ρ 1000 (35)

Figure 13 indicates the influence of feed temperature on STEC. As input temperature increased from 30°C to 45°C, STEC dropped significantly from 1,192 kWh/m³ to 1,386 kWh/m³. The STEC of the DCMD system dropped because the permeate flow increased in proportion to the rise in feed temperature. It has been observed that increasing the feed water temperature increased EE and decreased STEC when the temperature was increased. It can therefore be concluded that DCMD is more efficient when feed temperature is higher, due to the increase in efficiency. The observed patterns indicate a direct relationship between the temperature of the feed water, the EE, and STEC. Increasing the temperature of the feed water not only improves the efficiency of evaporation but also reduces the amount of thermal energy used per unit of output. Hence, the system exhibits greater efficiency with elevated feed water temperatures. This finding is significant for adjusting the operating parameters of the DCMD system to get greater efficiency and performance in freshwater production.

In general, the permeate flux rises with the rise in the feed stream rate. To examine the effect of feed flow rate on permeating flux, the flow rate of the feed varied between 1 and 4 L per minute in this study. We observed that when the flow rate of the PV/T system was increased from 1 to 4 L per minute, the permeate flux started to decrease because the temperature from the PV/T system decreased as depicted in Figure 14. The rise in feed stream rate led to a decrease in permeate flux, because of the increased velocity of flow rate, which directly impacted the thermodynamic properties of the integrated system. We observed an increase in the feed flow rate from 1 to 4 L per minute corresponding to an increase in the permeate flux from 12.44 to 6.6 kg/m² h.

The increase in feed flow rate results in enhanced hydrodynamic properties of the flow, hence leading to an elevation in permeate flux. When comparing the impacts of feed temperature and feed flow rate, it becomes evident that feed temperature has a greater impact on permeate flux compared to the feed flow rate.

The main objective of this research is to develop a DCMD system for producing fresh water from the low-grade waste heat of a PV/T system. Estimates of the DCMD system’s freshwater output can be derived from Eq. 36 (Soomro and Kim, 2018b): Q w = J m × A m ρ (36)

There is a direct relationship between fluctuations in the amount of solar power an incoming DCMD condenser receives, and the volume of cooling water used in the DCMD condenser, which in turn influences the output of the water production process. With a feed temperature of 40°C, a permeate temperature of 20°C, and a feed flow rate of from 1 L per minute to 4 L per minute, the DCMD system integrated with the solar PV/T system produced freshwater for domestic purpose usage, However, in August, freshwater output was 151.39 L per day. According to the results of this study, the temperature of the feed water is the main variable that affects the amount of freshwater that is produced by the DCMD system as well as the amount of wastewater rejection.