Bioarchaeological reassessment of Dahshur royal skeletal remains from the Late Middle Kingdom (c. 1850–1700 BCE)

Abstract

Introduction:

This study addresses the underutilization of bioarchaeological approaches in Egyptian research by reevaluating six royal skeletal remains (King Hor and five princesses) from de Morgan's 1894–1895 Dahshur excavation. Historically, these remains—now dispersed across two museums—received limited and contentious early analysis.

Methods:

The present research employs an integrated methodology, combining systematic osteological reexamination (biological profiles, activity patterns, non-metric traits, and paleopathology), radiological imaging (X-ray), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) for embalming materials.

Results:

This multi-analytical approach generates comprehensive data on elite health, activity patterns, and familial relationships. It also provides new perspectives on the royal women interred with historically male-associated weapons and regalia, exploring whether these items reflect active use or symbolic burial.

Discussion:

By critically correlating skeletal and historical evidence, this study refines individual identities, contextualizes funerary practices, and demonstrates the vital role of human remains analysis in reconstructing ancient Egyptian life and death.

1 Introduction

The Dahshur pyramid complex represents a major archaeological zone within the Memphis Necropolis, located on the western plateau overlooking the Nile Valley (Figure 1A). Occupied for more than five millennia (de Morgan, 1895; de Morgan and Legrain, 1903; Grajetzki, 2005, 2014, 2024), the site offers a vital landscape for examining the transition of funerary traditions from the Old Kingdom to the Middle Kingdom (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903, pp. 68–71; Grajetzki, 1995, 2010, pp. 26–28; Grajetzki, 2014, p. 46). Systematic excavations at the pyramid of Amenemhat III (Figure 1C), specifically in the North Shafts (c. 1750 BCE), began in April 1894 under the supervision of Jacques de Morgan, Director-General of the Egyptian Antiquities Service. These investigations revealed intact subsidiary burial chambers containing the remains of King Hor, Princess Noub-Hotep, and several other individuals (de Morgan, 1895; de Morgan and Legrain, 1903). In December 1894, de Morgan continued his work at Dahshur in the western galleries surrounding the Amenemhat II pyramid complex (c. 1900 BCE). By February 1895, he had uncovered the burials of Princesses Ita and Khenmet (Figure 1B). Later that spring, additional intact burials were revealed, including those of Princesses Itaweret and Sathathormeryt, along with other individuals (de Morgan, 1895; de Morgan and Legrain, 1903) (Figure 1C). This study reassesses these remains by applying systematic osteological analysis to reconstruct biological profiles, activity patterns, and non-metric traits. By integrating radiological imaging, this study not only identifies embalming materials but also reevaluates skeletal evidence to explore the relationship between embodied activity patterns and the symbolic or functional presence of weapons traditionally associated with males in royal female burials. The study provides a biohistorical reconstruction of this royal cohort, including the identification of systemic physiological stressors, such as entheseal changes, which shed light on elite habitual activities. Overall, this study advances a contextual, integrative approach that combines skeletal, historical, and chemical evidence to more fully reconstruct life and death in the ancient Egyptian royal sphere.

Figure 1

2 Materials and methods

The present study focuses on six individuals whose skeletal remains were recovered from the vicinities of the Amenemhat II and Amenemhat III pyramid complexes during Jacques de Morgan's excavations between 1894 and 1895. These individuals are currently housed in Room “4” of the Egyptian Museum basement at Tahrir.

These human remains include King Hor, four princesses (i.e., Noub-Hotep, Ita, Khenmet, and Itaweret), and an additional anonymous female. These remains were brought to the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir by Madame Fouquet in 1915 after Dr. Daniel Marie Fouquet passed away in Cairo in 1914 (Vicente, 2025, p. 136). These materials were stored in two wooden boxes, formally catalogued by the Egyptian Museum under the Temporary Register numbers TR 27/3/15/1A and TR 27/3/15/1B. The royal skeletal remains from Dahshur were placed in box TR 27/3/15/1B, whereas box TR 27/3/15/1A contained skeletal and mummified remains originating from various other archaeological sites (Hashesh, 2024, pp. 111–130).

Initial anatomical assessments were carried out in 1895 by Daniel Marie Fouquet (de Morgan, 1895), a pioneer in the early scientific investigation of Egyptian royal mummified individuals (Ikram, 2020, p. 412; Baker and Judd, 2012, pp. 209–234; Hashesh, 2024, pp. 111–130). Fouquet's examinations, however, were limited to King Hor and Princess Noub-Hotep. The remaining individuals included in the present study, Princesses Ita, Khenmet, and Itaweret, and the additional anonymous female, were not examined anthropologically by Fouquet. Consequently, these skeletal remains went unexamined for more than a century until their recent reassessment (Hashesh, 2024, pp. 111–130). During the Bioarchaeological Remains Curation Project (BRCPEM), directed by the first author (Hashesh et al., in press; Ikram et al., in press; Hashesh, 2024), these remains were rediscovered in Room “3” of the Egyptian Museum basement and reexamined in 2020. Notably, many bones still bear the original handwritten identifications applied by the nineteenth-century excavators (Figures 2A,B), preserved either directly on the skeletal surfaces, attached labels (Figure 2C), or fragments of newspaper historically used to wrap the remains (Figure 2D) (Hashesh, 2024, pp. 111–130). The remains of these individuals are currently housed in the basement collections of the Egyptian Museum. All individuals are presently missing their crania, with the exception of King Hor, whose remains are characterized by the absence of both the maxilla and mandible. The crania were originally transferred by M. Maspero, Director-General of the Service des Antiquités, to the Anatomical Museum of the Cairo School of Medicine for initial examination by Dr. Fouquet and were subsequently documented by Elliot Smith. These crania remained curated within the museum collection of the Cairo School of Medicine for an extended period prior to their loss (Smith, 1906, pp. 7–8).

Figure 2

Based on de Morgan observations, the mummified individuals from the Dahshur excavations were generally poorly mummified compared to later Theban examples. In these burials, the flesh often decayed into a brownish resinous substance that turned to powder upon contact, leaving the bones bare (de Morgan, 1895).

2.1 Osteological analysis and documentation

Osteological analysis and systematic documentation of the Dahshur skeletal remains were conducted in accordance with established standards (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994) to reconstruct the biological profiles, health status, activity patterns, and lived experiences of members of the royal family. When integrated with the archaeological context, these data provide critical insights into social identity, mortuary practices, and cultural behavior within the elite sphere. Moreover, this approach ensures consistent recording protocols, supporting the reproducibility and reliability of skeletal observations. The evaluation of axial skeletal completeness followed the standardized criteria outlined by Grady et al. (2007) and White and Folkens (2000)¹. Furthermore, cortical surface preservation was evaluated using the six-level classification system developed by Brickley and McKinley (2004), while overall skeletal preservation was categorized into five levels in accordance with the criteria established by Behrensmeyer (1978).²

Visual examination was performed macroscopically, and comprehensive digital documentation was captured using an 18–200 mm zoom lens, as well as 60 and 105 mm macro lenses. All photographs were taken by the second author.

2.1.1 Biological profile estimation

Sex estimation was primarily conducted through the assessment of pelvic and cranial morphological dimorphism, following established osteological standards (Bass, 2005; Brothwell, 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Ferembach et al., 1979; Novotný, 1982; Phenice, 1969; Sjǿvold, 1988) to determine individual identity and provide a demographic framework for interpreting health, activity patterns, and social roles.

In cases where skeletal preservation was insufficient for reliable morphological evaluation, long bone metric data—particularly the vertical diameters of the humeral and femoral heads—were used to supplement sex assessment (Bass, 2005). Adult age at death was estimated from morphological changes of the pubic symphysis and auricular surface (Brooks and Suchey, 1990; Lovejoy et al., 1985), with cranial suture closure employed as a secondary indicator when present (Meindl and Lovejoy, 1985). Stature was estimated using combined femoral and tibial lengths; when one of these elements was unavailable, stature calculations were derived from single long bone measurements. All stature estimations utilized regression equations specifically developed for ancient Egyptian populations to ensure population-appropriate accuracy (Raxter et al., 2008).

2.1.2 Paleopathology recording

Degenerative joint and spinal diseases were documented according to the criteria established by Waldron (2009). Congenital disorders were identified following Barnes (2012). Periosteal lesions were recorded in accordance with more recent standards proposed by Weston (2011) and Ortner and Putschar (1985). Traumatic injuries were documented following protocols outlined by Galloway (1999) and Redfern et al. (2017).

2.1.3 Non-metric traits and entheseal changes

Non-metric traits were systematically recorded to assess potential familial relationships and to identify population-level biological patterns. Their documentation followed well-established methodological standards widely used in bioarcheology and skeletal biology (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Carolineberry and Berry, 1967; Hauser and De Stefano, 1989; Molto, 1983; Trinkaus, 1978). This analytical framework ensures consistency in trait identification and provides a robust comparative basis for interpreting both intra- and inter-population variation. The analysis and recording of muscle attachment sites were conducted following the protocols outlined by Hawkey and Merbs (1995) and Mariotti et al. (2007).

2.2 Analysis of mummification materials

As an initial stage of the investigation, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) was employed to characterize the chemical composition of the resinous substances adhering to skeletal elements from the Dahshur assemblage. FTIR analysis was selected due to its effectiveness in identifying organic compounds and functional groups through characteristic infrared absorption spectra, making it particularly suitable for the study of ancient embalming materials. This technique enables the detection of molecular structures and provides a reliable, non-destructive method for confirming the presence of specific resins and organic substances. Seven samples of the black resinous materials adhering to the skeletal surfaces were collected for detailed analysis. FTIR was performed at the Chromatography Laboratory of the Center for Research and Conservation of Antiquities, Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, to identify the black resinous materials from different locations (Table 1). The samples were analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy in ATR mode with a VERTEX 70 instrument (Bruker). Spectra were collected over the range of 4,000–400 cm⁻¹ at a resolution of 4 cm⁻¹, with 16 scans accumulated for each measurement.

3 Results

The overall preservation of all skeletons is fair. Cortical surface preservation is classified as “5,” with no hair or other soft tissue present. In addition black resinous material remains visible in various locations on the skeletal surfaces (Table 1).

Individuals recovered from the Amenemhat II pyramid complex (west galleries), dating to the late Twelfth Dynasty, include the following.

3.1 Princess Ita

The skeletal remains of Princess Ita were discovered in an intact tomb in 1894 (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903). A total of 57.8% of her skeleton was preserved. A gray stain was observed on the distal ends of both ulnae and radii. The skeleton belonged to a young adult female, aged between 28 and 34 years old at death (Figure 3A). Sex estimation was based on pelvis dimorphism (i.e., ventral arch, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus, preauricular sulcus, greater sciatic notch, composite arch, ischiopubic proportions) and the vertical diameter of the proximal femur. Age estimation was derived from the auricular surface and pubic symphysis morphology. Stature was estimated between 151.4 and 155.3 cm, based on measurements of the left femur and tibia.

Figure 3

The glenoid fossae of both scapulae showed porosity and marginal lipping (Figure 4A). Slight lipping was present on the inferior articular facets of the twelfth thoracic vertebra (Figure 4B), as well as the first and second lumbar vertebrae. A Schmorl's node was observed on the fourth lumbar vertebra. Spina bifida occulta was evident from the third to fifth sacral segments. Both femora exhibited abnormal bone formation along the anterior distal shafts (Figure 4E).

Figure 4

With respect to entheseal robusticity and enthesopathies, Princess Ita exhibited marked robustness of the right costoclavicular ligament (Figure 4F). The deltoid muscle attachment on the right humerus was more pronounced than on the left, while the attachment sites for the brachialis, supinator, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis longus, extensor indicis, and pronator quadratus muscles on the right ulna were markedly more robust. The flexor digitorum superficialis was strongly developed in the right hand but the left side was unavailable for recording. The interosseous membrane of Princess Ita's ulnae exhibited marked robustness (Figure 4G). Both right and left dorsal interosseous muscles of the first metacarpals displayed strong attachment sites without evidence of pathological stress. In addition, the opponens digiti minimi exhibited marked hypertrophy at the proximal phalanges of the left hand (Figure 4D). A septal aperture was present in the right humerus (Figure 4C).

3.2 Princess Khenmet

The skeletal remains of Princess Khenmet, discovered in an intact tomb in 1894 (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903), suggest that she may also have been a royal wife (Grajetzki, 2014, 60, n. 170; Melandri, 2016, p. 166). A total of 38.3% of her skeleton was preserved. Jacques de Morgan reported the presence of a white powder and a lead-based white substance, likely used for gilding, within the burial chamber of Princess Khenmet. However, this material could not be subjected to chemical analysis due to the insufficient preservation of residue on the skeletal remains. During the present investigation, traces of white staining were observed on both the ulnae and radii, potentially corresponding to the material previously described, although its composition could not be confirmed. The skeleton belonged to a middle adult female, aged between 35 and 45 years at death (Figure 3B). Sex estimation was based on pelvis dimorphism (i.e., preauricular sulcus, greater sciatic notch, composite arch, ischiopubic proportions) the vertical diameter of the proximal femur. Age estimation was derived from auricular surface morphology. Stature was estimated between 147.8 and 151.8 cm, based on measurements of the right femur and tibia.

Slight osteoarthritic pitting was present on the sternal end of the right clavicle (Figure 5B), with mild pitting observed on both femoral heads at the hip joints (Figure 5D).

Figure 5

Schmorl's nodes were present in the ninth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae, as well as in the second lumbar vertebra (Figure 5C). A cleft neural arch was observed on the left side of the atlas (Figure 5A). Both femora exhibited lamellar bone formation along the anterior mid-shaft, indicating a healed inflammatory or nonspecific infection. The right tibia displayed areas of woven bone formation. All long bones exhibited reduced trabecular density, cortical thinning, and overall loss of bone mass. These features may be indicative of osteoporosis; however, further diagnostic analysis is required to confirm this interpretation.

Princess Khenmet exhibited a more robust costoclavicular ligament on the left side, while the trapezoid ligament was strongly developed bilaterally (Figure 6A). The brachialis attachment on the right ulna was more pronounced, whereas the left ulna displayed a markedly developed interosseous membrane (Figure 6B). Bowing was observed in both second metacarpals, a feature commonly associated with metabolic disturbances such as vitamin D deficiency. The sacroiliac, sacrospinous, and inguinal ligament attachment sites were strongly developed on both sides (Figure 6C). The gluteus maximus attached was more robust on the left femur than the right. Allen's fossa and hypotrochanteric fossa were present on both femora, and a slight lateral tibial squatting facet was observed on the right tibia (Figure 6D).

Figure 6

3.3 Princess Itaweret

The skeletal remains of Princess Itaweret were discovered in an intact tomb in 1894 (de Morgan, 1895, pp. 52–77; Melandri, 2016, p. 167). A total of 40% of her skeleton was preserved. The remains belonged to a young adult female, aged between 20 and 34 years at death (Figure 3C). Sex estimation was based on pelvis dimorphism (i.e., ventral arch, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus ridge) and the vertical diameter of the proximal femur. Age estimation was derived from pubic symphysis morphology. Stature was estimated between 149.9 and 155.0 cm, based on measurements of the right femur.

Osteological assessment revealed several healed injuries and pathological features. The left third and fourth ribs exhibited well-healed fractures, while the left proximal epiphyses of the third, fourth, and fifth metatarsals showed evidence of well-healed stress fractures (Galloway, 1999, p. 222) (Figure 7D).

Figure 7

Multiple thoracic vertebrae, specifically the fourth, fifth, and sixth, presented hypervascular impressions (Figure 7A), with an additional ossified ligamentum flavum observed on the fourth thoracic vertebra. Furthermore, abnormal foramina were documented in the second, seventh, and ninth through twelfth thoracic vertebrae. Both femoral shafts displayed abnormal woven bone formation, indicative of an active or previously active pathological process (Figure 7B). Degenerative joint disease (DJD) was observed on both distal femora (Figure 7C). Additional features included a septal aperture in the left humerus, Allen's fossa on the right femur, a lateral tibial squatting facet on the right tibia, and vastus notches on both patellae. The left costoclavicular and conoid ligament were more robust (Figure 7E).

3.4 Anonymous female skeleton

An anonymous female skeleton was found in the same box as the remains of Princesses Ita, Khenmet, Itaweret, Noub-Hotep, and King Hor. No labels or handwritten identifications were present on the bones or associated materials. Consequently, BRCPEM assigned identification number 408 to the individual. A total of 21.7% of her skeleton was preserved. The remains belonged to an adult female over 20 years at death (Figure 3D). Because of the skull and pelvis were absent, sex estimation was based on the morphology and relative gracility of the long bones and feet, which were smaller and more delicate than those of the other princesses (Brickley and McKinley, 2004, p. 8). This assessment was further supported by measurements of the glenoid cavity, specifically its length and breadth, which fell within the female range (Dabbs, 2010, pp. 413–420). Age at death was estimated from the state of epiphyseal fusion (Cunningham, et al., 2016; Schaefer et al., 2009).

The inferior articular facet of the fifth lumbar vertebra exhibited marked asymmetry (Figure 8B), with the left facet larger than the right. The distal left tibia presented a medial tibial squatting facet (Figure 8C), and the calcaneus displayed a double anterior calcaneal facet. Both ulnae flexor digitorum superficialis muscle attachments sites were robust (Figure 8A).

Figure 8

Individuals recovered from the north shafts of the Amenemhat III pyramid complex, dating to the early Thirteenth Dynasty, include the following:

3.5 King Hor (Au-ib-Re)

The tomb of King Hor was discovered on 16 April 1894 near the northeast corner of the South Pyramid of Amenemhat III. Due to the high clay content of the surrounding sediment, the burial was constructed within a deep pit. Although the primary burial had been disturbed in antiquity, the head of the individual was covered with a gilded wooden mask inlaid with gemstone and bronze (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903; Othman et al., 2024). The skull was previously examined and documented by Roxie Walker in 2000.

In 2020, the Bioarchaeological Remains Curation Project of the Egyptian Museum (BRCPEM) reidentified and reexamined an incomplete skull and associated postcranial elements attributed to King Hor. The skull—housed on the third floor of the Egyptian Museum under Register No. SRI/10191—exhibited evidence of a coronal autopsy cut. A portion of the nasal fragment was preserved, while the mandible, maxilla, and several facial components were missing. Additional postcranial skeletal elements, catalogued under Temporary Register No. TR 27/3/15/1B, were housed in the museum basement and displayed a transverse autopsy cut on the proximal aspect of the right tibia. A total of 30.6% of King Hor’s skeleton was preserved.

The skeleton belonged to a middle adult male, aged between 40 and 44 years at death (Figure 9A). Sex estimation was based on morphological characteristics of the skull, including the nuchal crest, mastoid process, and supraorbital ridge, in addition to pelvic dimorphism, with particular emphasis on features such as the preauricular sulcus and the greater sciatic notch. Fouquet's 1895 assessment estimated King Hor's age at approximately 45 years, based on dental wear and skull suture closure. This historical estimate aligns closely with the recent BRCPEM analysis, which placed the individual within the middle adult category based on auricular surface morphology (Lovejoy et al., 1985; Cox, 2000, pp. 61–81). Traces of natron salts were observed, and in several areas the internal surfaces of the bones exhibited an unusual shiny appearance, possibly resulting from contact with resin-saturated or oil-treated fine textiles adhering to the pelvic region. In addition, black resinous smears were present directly on the bone surfaces. Fragments of linen wrappings were also recovered in association with the skull; these textiles were finely woven with a loose weave structure and exhibited discoloration consistent with long-term exposure to a mummification materials.

Figure 9

Osteological examination revealed bilateral healed cribra orbitalia within the orbits. In addition, fine to moderate pitting was observed across the supraorbital region and the glabella, indicating expansion of the diploë through the outer table (Brickley, 2018; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Ortner and Putschar, 1985; Walker et al., 2009; Wapler et al., 2004). This symmetrical porous hyperostosis is consistent with systemic physiological stress. Such lesions are typically associated with pathological conditions, including chronic metabolic disease, infections, or other chronic illnesses, as well as nutritional deficiencies (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994; Facchini et al., 2004; Ortner and Putschar, 1985; Walker et al., 2009). The frontal bone lesions corresponded to Grade 3 on the Stuart-Macadam scale (Stuart-Macadam, 1985). A small, well-healed scar measuring 10 mm × 5 mm was present on the left side of the frontal bone above the eyebrow (Figure 10B), while a second small, well-healed scar measuring 8 mm × 2 mm was visible on the right frontal region above the supraorbital ridge.

Figure 10

The endocranial surface exhibited a subperiosteal new bone formation accompanied by flaking on the right frontal region, probably resulting from an impact to the outer vault. Such trauma frequently yields radiating fractures and may also cause a portion of the bone to be displaced endocranially (Mann and Hunt, 2013) (Figure 10C). Multiple shallow depressions were present near the frontal midline, most consistent with arachnoid granulations, which typically increase in size, depth, and number as part of normal age-related physiological change (Sandison, 1962; Ortner and Putschar, 1985; Wysocka et al., 2025, p. 6109). Radiographic imaging further confirmed these endocranial observations.

King Hor also exhibited multilocular frontal sinuses with complex scalloping and asymmetrical lobulations, indicative of pronounced pneumatization. Such morphology is highly individualizing and aligns with expected frontal sinus development during mid-adulthood, as frontal sinus patterns are known to vary significantly between individuals in terms of size, shape, and degree of lobulation, making them a distinctive anatomical feature often used in identification. This pattern aligns with expected frontal sinus development during mid-adulthood (Yoshino et al., 1987) (Figure 10A, white arrows). Marked cranial and postcranial asymmetries were also documented across the skeletal remains. The right nasal spine of the frontal bone was bigger than the left (Figure 10A, red arrows). The right mastoid process, measuring 33 mm × 14 mm, exceeded the dimensions of the left mastoid process (29 mm × 10 mm), demonstrating pronounced lateral asymmetry and greater morphological development on the right side. Additional asymmetry was present in the occipital condyles, with the right condyle notably larger than the left. Although the left clavicle and scapula were absent, a distinct depression was preserved on the right sternal facet of the medial clavicle. Furthermore, the right glenoid cavity exhibited an osseous depression extending from the anterior to the inferior–posterior region, accompanied by enlargement of the glenoid rim (Figure 10D).

The sacro-lumbar articulation also displayed significant bilateral variation: The articular facets of the sacrum with the fifth lumbar vertebra differed markedly in both size and orientation. The left facet was substantially more concave, and the divergent angulation between the two sides represented a clear instance of facet tropism (Figure 11B). The first thoracic vertebra exhibited porosity on the left rib articular facet, suggesting compensatory loading or functional stress likely resulting from an issue affecting the right side. In addition, the left inferior articular facet of the third lumbar vertebra displayed marginal lipping, indicative of early degenerative change. The right first metacarpal exhibited a well-healed avulsion fracture (Galloway, 1999, p. 153) (Figures 11C–E), with clear evidence of successful bone remodeling and associated bowing, indicating a traumatic event followed by an extended period of recovery during life.

Figure 11

The right tibia showed lamellar bone formation along its medial aspect, consistent with localized abnormal remodeling resulting from inflammation or soft-tissue trauma.

Several non-metric cranial and postcranial traits were identified. These include a left parietal foramen and the presence of a parietal notch bone on the left side, along with a pronounced left supraorbital notch. On the right side of the skull, a lambdoid ossicle and an asterionic bone were observed. Additional features included a condylar canal on both sides and bilateral mastoid foramina. An acetabular crease was also recorded in both hips. Although the left clavicle was absent, the right clavicle exhibited a markedly robust deltoideus muscle attachment. The left ulna showed a distinctly enlarged supinator muscle insertion, whereas the right ulna demonstrated greater development at the brachialis muscle attachment site (Figure 11A). Moreover, the left tibia displayed pronounced attachment areas for both the quadriceps tendon and the soleus muscle, while the corresponding right tibia was not preserved.

3.6 Princess Noub-Hotep (Nubhetepti-Khered)

The tomb of Princess Noub-Hotep, discovered intact next to the burial of King Hor, had suffered extensive deterioration of the soft tissues due to prolonged exposure to humidity. However, several skeletal elements remained well preserved (de Morgan, 1895; Grajetzki, 2014). A transverse autopsy cut was observed on the proximal aspect of the right tibia. A total of 48.3% of Noub-Hotep’s skeleton was preserved. The skeleton belonged to a middle adult female, aged between 40 and 44 years at death (Figure 9B). Sex estimation was based on left pelvic morphology (i.e., ventral arch, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus, preauricular sulcus, greater sciatic notch, composite arch, ischiopubic proportions). Age estimation was derived from morphological changes of the left auricular surface and pubic symphysis. This assessment corresponds closely with Fouquet's original age estimate of 44–45 years, which he derived from cranial suture closure and dental wear. Stature was estimated between 158.2 and 162.1 cm, based on measurements of the right femur and tibia.

A congenital anomaly was identified in the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra, characterized by the absence of the left portion of the spinous structure. Additional vertebral asymmetry was observed in the first, second, fourth, and fifth thoracic vertebrae, accompanied by osteoarthritic changes affecting the right articular facets of the second thoracic vertebra (Figure 12A, red arrow). The right superior articulation facet of the second thoracic vertebrae had healed from a marginal fracture resulting from stress on the right side (Figure 12A, white arrow). The anterior aspect of the fifth thoracic vertebral body displayed a well-formed callus, distinct vascular impressions, and an abnormal foramen, indicating a localized pathological or developmental variation. Furthermore, sacralization was present, marked by enlargement of the right superior articular facet (Figure 12B). The left facet was more concave, representing a clear instance of facet tropism similar to that observed in King Hor. This congenital fusion, combined with asymmetric facet morphology, likely contributed to the overall pattern of spinal asymmetry documented in the princess.

Figure 12

Princess Noub-Hotep exhibited no evidence of osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disease in the long bones, despite being a middle adult individual at the time of her death. The distal third of the right fibula exhibited an area of cancellous bone characterized by a small cavity lacking normal trabecular architecture. The skeletal remains of the princess exhibit several non-metric traits, including a bipartite transverse foramen in the seventh cervical vertebra, a septal aperture in both humeri, Allen's fossa in both femora, and lateral squatting facets on both tibiae (Figure 12D). The clavicle showed bilateral robustness of the conoid ligaments, with the left trapezoid ligament being more developed. The right deltoides muscle was more robust. The ulna showed bilateral robustness of the interosseous membrane and supinator muscle attachments. The ulna flexor digitorum superficialis was strong on both sides but bigger on the right side. The pronator quadratus muscle was robust on the left ulna. The right dorsal interosseus muscles of the metacarpals and proximal phalanges were strong with no evidence of stress, while the right fifth metacarpal showed strong opponens digit minimi. Bowing was observed in the second right metacarpal, with no sign of lesions. The dorsal sacroiliac and inguinal ligaments, as well as the obturator membrane in the left hip, were robust, with osteophytes in the sacroiliac ligament (Figure 12C).

3.7 FTIR-ATR analysis of mummification materials

As an initial stage of investigation, FTIR-ATR analyses were conducted on the black resinous substances adhering to various skeletal elements from the Dahshur skeletal remains (Table 2). The laboratory team at the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities identified these materials as a mixture of frankincense (Boswellia carterii, Boswellia thuriferaj) and juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) resin. In contrast, Princess Ita’s resinous sample represented only juniper (Hüsnü Can Başer and Buchbauer, 2015, p. 624). The prominence of sharp absorption peaks at 2,924 cm⁻¹ and 2,853 cm⁻¹, together with the characteristic carbonyl profile, suggests that the juniper component derives from the destructive distillation of Juniperus oxycedrus (Chollakup et al., 2013; Gonny et al., 2006; Huber et al., 2026). This mixture was likely employed as a protective and ritual embalming agent, consistent with previously documented uses of resinous compounds in ancient Egyptian mummification practices (Buckley and Evershed, 2001; Colombini and Modugno, 2009).

Our understanding of the mummification techniques applied to these individuals relies entirely on the pioneering study conducted by Smith in 1906. He was the only researcher to directly examine the cranial remains. Since this material is no longer available for reexamination, Smith's archival records remain the sole source of information for evaluating their mummification practices. Smith's observations indicate that mummification during the Middle Kingdom at Dahshur involved external treatment of the body rather than invasive cranial procedures. The consistent preservation of the ethmoid bone and nasal structures in most examined crania suggests that deliberate transnasal brain removal was not practiced. Where breaks were observed, there is no clear evidence of intentional intervention. Instead, resinous substances appear to have been applied externally to the body and possibly around the facial orifices, with any resin within the cranial cavity likely resulting from post-depositional damage. These findings support the interpretation that embalming in the Twelfth Dynasty followed a relatively conservative and non-invasive approach, although this conclusion remains dependent on historical observations that cannot be directly reassessed (Smith, 1906). Additional analytical techniques—including GC–MS, DNA analysis, and stable isotope analysis—are planned pending formal approval from the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

3.8 Limitations of this study

This study is subject to several limitations that affect the completeness of the analysis and interpretation. A major constraint is the absence of cranial remains for all individuals included in the study, with the exception of King Hor, whose maxilla and mandible are also absent. This issue is further complicated by the historical separation of the skeletal elements, as the postcranial remains are currently curated in the basement collections of the Egyptian Museum, while the crania were previously transferred to the anatomical museum of the Cairo School of Medicine. Such fragmentation of the collection has hindered the integration of cranial and postcranial data, thereby limiting the comprehensiveness of the osteobiographical reconstruction and the study of mummification techniques. Consequently, the present study should be understood as an analysis based on the best-preserved and accessible remains.

4 Discussion

The Dahshur royal burials provide a unique and highly informative context for reconstructing the political, ritual, and biological landscape of the late Middle Kingdom. Archaeologically, these interments formed part of a deliberately structured mortuary program extending from the late Twelfth to the early Thirteenth Dynasties (c. 1850–1775 BCE), reflecting both dynastic continuity and the sustained authority of Kings Amenemhat II and Amenemhat III. As Grajetzki (2014) argues, the spatial placement of royal women around the pyramid complexes was intentional rather than incidental, functioning within a broader ritual system he characterizes as a “machine for surviving death,” designed to secure the king's eternal rebirth. Within this ideological framework, the royal women held the title mesu-nisut (“King's Children”), serving as ritual agents whose presence was integral to the regeneration of their divine father. The burial of King Hor (Thirteenth Dynasty) within the Amenemhat III complex (Twelfth Dynasty), highlighted by both Grajetzki (2014) and de Morgan (1895), provides a compelling example of this ideological and mortuary continuity (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903, pp. 68–71; Grajetzki, 1995, 2010, pp. 26–28; Grajetzki, 2014). The osteological reassessment of the Dahshur royal individuals—including King Hor and Princesses Noub-Hotep, Ita, Khenmet, and Itaweret—adds a critical biocultural dimension to this archaeological narrative. The skeletal evidence reveals patterned indicators of physiological stress, habitual activity, and trauma, such as lamellar bone formation on King Hor's tibia and possible healed bilateral cribra orbitalia. The Dahshur cemetery thus represents not a mortuary landscape but a biocultural system in which bodies, objects, and practices are linked.

This study is grounded in recent developments in social bioarchaeology and osteobiography, which emphasize the need to move beyond descriptive or list-based presentations of skeletal data. As Hosek et al. (2021) and Hosek and Robba (2019) argue, meaningful interpretation emerges through the integration, or “layering,” of multiple lines of evidence, including skeletal markers, burial context, and material culture. Within this framework, human remains are understood as dynamic records of lived experience, shaped by ongoing interactions between biology, environment, and social practice. Moreover, osteobiographical approaches stress the reconstruction of the life course, where childhood stress, adult activity, trauma, and degeneration are interpreted as sequential and cumulative processes rather than isolated observations.

4.1 Archaeological context and mortuary program

The earliest attested group of the Dahshur royal family includes Princesses Ita, Khenmet, Itaweret, and Sathathormeryt, daughters of Amenemhat II and sisters of King Senusert II (c. 1877–1843 BCE) (Grajetzki, 2014).³ Ceramic evidence, particularly “queen's ware,” together with a scarab inscribed with the name of Amenemhat III, demonstrates that these women were interred during his reign, approximately 50–60 years after their father's death (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903, pp. 68–71; Grajetzki, 1995, 2010, pp. 26–28; Grajetzki, 2014). Within this broader mortuary program, de Morgan's discovery of the adjacent shaft tombs of King Hor and Princess Noub-Hotep further indicates a deliberate spatial relationship that was likely ritual and may also have reflected familial ties (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903, pp. 68–71; Grajetzki, 1995, 2010, pp. 26–28; Grajetzki, 2014).⁴ As Grajetzki (2014) argues, the arrangement of the princesses—pairing Ita with Khenmet and Itaweret with Sathathormeryt—reflects ritual structuring rather than domestic associations. The grave goods accompanying these women, including bows, maces, staves, and other “Court Type” regalia, underscore their elite status and align them with Osirian symbolism. Through their title mesu-nisut, these royal women participated in the cyclical rebirth of the king, transforming the Dahshur pyramid complex into a landscape of ritual renewal (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903; Grajetzki, 1995, 2010, 2014). Amenemhat III (c. 1818–1773 BCE) emerges as the principal architect of this funerary landscape, overseeing the organization and strategic reuse of burial spaces across generations. The subsequent transition into the early thirteenth Dynasty (c. 1777–1775 BCE) marked a shift in political authority but did not interrupt the continuity of funerary practice established under his reign. Moreover, the osteological analysis in this study strongly suggests a biological affinity among the king and the princesses.

4.2 Identification and contextual placement of individual 408

Based on the archaeological reports of de Morgan (1895), de Morgan and Legrain (1903), and Grajetzki (2014), Queen Keminub and Princess Sathathormeryt were buried within the same collection around the Amenmhat II pyramid complex. No preserved body or documented skeleton exists for Queen Keminub, and her burial was disturbed (Grajetzki, 2014; Melandri, 2016). Therefore, Individual 408 cannot be attributed to her.

By contrast, the body of Princess Sathathormeryt was found in situ within her sandstone sarcophagus, located beside Princess Itaweret (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903; Grajetzki, 1995; Grajetzki, 2010, 2014). Her burial contained regalia such as a flail, bow, arrows, and scepters—objects documented in Sathathormeryt's tomb (Grajetzki, 2014). In addition, the osteological analysis of her body aligns with activity profiles shared by other Dahshur princesses. The integrated archaeological and osteological evidence indicates that Individual 408 is most consistent with Princess Sathathormeryt.

4.3 Childhood stress, metabolic health, and survival in elite contexts

Skeletal evidence demonstrates that elite status did not eliminate physiological stress but rather shaped its trajectory across the life course. King Hor's cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis reflect early-life metabolic stress linked to nutritional deficiency or infection (Angel, 1966; Fairgrieve and Molto, 2000; Grauer, 1993; Stuart-Macadam, 1985, 1992; Waldron, 2009). Princess Khenmet's osteopenia suggests the influence of hormonal or nutritional factors (Walker, 1995; Walker et al., 1988; Zaki et al., 2009). From an osteobiographical perspective, these conditions represent cumulative experiences rather than isolated pathologies. Bioarchaeological studies have demonstrated that skeletal markers preserve evidence of stress during growth, allowing reconstruction of early-life conditions and their long-term effects. As emphasized by Robb (2002), human lives follow socially structured trajectories, though these remain variable rather than rigidly defined. This framework allows the Dahshur individuals to be understood as following diverse life paths shaped by status, gender, and environment. The “osteological paradox” (Wood et al., 1992) remains central: The presence of pathological indicators reflects not only disease but also survival and access to care, reinforcing the need to interpret skeletal evidence within broader social contexts.

4.4 Trauma, risk, and care

Several members of the Dahshur cohort exhibit well-healed traumatic injuries, indicating survival after significant physical events. King Hor shows a completely remodeled fracture of the right first metacarpal together with healed cranial scarring—demonstrating that the injury occurred years before death—which reflects the typical trauma pattern described by Galloway (1999, p. 153). These injuries likely resulted from accidental impacts such as falls, consistent with an active lifestyle rather than a sedentary elite existence. Princess Itaweret presents healed rib fractures and metatarsal stress fractures attributed to either a fall from height or a forceful blow to the chest, matching trauma mechanisms outlined by Galloway (1999, pp. 107, 222). The combination of healed fractures and entheseal changes suggests repetitive high-impact movement. Princess Noub-Hotep also exhibits a healed stress-related lesion on the articular facet, supporting the interpretation that these royal women shared similar physically demanding activity patterns. Both Hor and Khenmet show localized tibial abnormal bone formation caused by inflammatory soft-tissue injury (White et al., 2012, p. 446; Ortner and Putschar, 1985, p. 209). The absence of malalignment or infection indicates careful, effective treatment consistent with the surgical knowledge preserved in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (Nunn, 2002), which describes procedures such as fracture reduction, splinting, and wound care. This represents rare skeletal confirmation of practiced medical expertise within a Middle Kingdom royal context. Biomechanically, the Dahshur elites show not generalized labor but patterned axial loading, habitual posture, and robust upper-limb musculature typical of specialized tasks (Jurmain et al., 2012; Kilgore et al., 1997; Merbs, 1983).

4.5 Activity patterns, weaponry, and martial engagement

One of the most significant outcomes of this study is the close correspondence between skeletal markers of activity and burial assemblages. Pronounced entheseal development across upper limbs (Jurmain et al., 2012; Kilgore et al., 1997; Merbs, 1983) indicates repetitive, high-intensity actions consistent with archery and weapon use. This evidence directly informs long-standing debates about the function of weapons in female burials (de Morgan and Legrain, 1903; Grajetzki, 2014). Rather than purely symbolic objects, these items appear to have been actively used, as reflected in skeletal adaptations such as asymmetry, muscle hypertrophy, and metacarpal modification. Princess Noub-Hotep provides a particularly clear example, where skeletal changes align with the presence of arrows in her burial.

Bows were common funerary equipment from the Old to Middle Kingdom (Brown, 2015, p. 51; Mace and Winlock, 1916, p. 77; Hayes, 1953, 282; Brown, 2010, p. 133), peaking during the Middle Kingdom. Osteological evidence strongly supports functional use. King Hor shows asymmetry between the left supinator (Figure 12F, white arrow) and right brachialis (Figure 12F, red arrow), together with an osseous depression in the right glenoid cavity (Figure 10D), consistent with martial or related tasks. Princesses Khenmet and Itaweret show hypertrophy at the radial tuberosity and supinator crest, indicating repeated bow-drawing. Princess Itaweret shows costoclavicular ligament robustness in both clavicles (Figure 7E), alongside robust attachments of the pectoralis major (Figure 7F, white arrows) and deltoideus (Figure 7F, red arrows), consistent with archery. The skeletal remains of Princess Ita exhibit a robust costoclavicular ligament attachment on the right clavicle (Figure 4F) and marked robustness at the interosseous membrane insertion sites on both ulnae (Figure 4G). Additionally, the attachment site for the opponens digiti minimi muscle on the left fifth metacarpal is notably robust (Figure 4D). Taken together with her robust humeral epicondyles and flexor digitorum superficialis attachments, these musculoskeletal stress markers strongly reflect a habitual gripping of weapons, such as daggers or maces (Figure 13A). The skeletal remains of Princess Noub-Hotep reveal well-developed, robust muscle attachment sites on the forearm bones (ulnae) and the right hand. Specifically, prominent markings are visible where the interosseous membrane (the tissue connecting the forearm bones; Figure 12E, white arrows) and the pronator quadratus (the muscle responsible for turning the palm downward; Figure 12E, red arrows) attach to the bone. Additionally, strong attachment sites for the dorsal interosseus muscles, which control finger movement, are evident on the right hand bones, including the palm bones (metacarpals) and the base of the fingers (proximal phalanges; Figure 12F, white arrows). Princess Noub-Hotep’s second right metacarpal shows distinct bowing that occurs without any signs of pathological lesions (Figure 12F, red arrows).

Figure 13

This pattern of structural remodeling is interpreted as a biomechanical response to repetitive, high-intensity gripping activities required to stabilize and draw a bow. The pronounced development of the flexor digitorum superficialis, a muscle essential for finger flexion and grip strength, indicates sustained mechanical loading; its greater hypertrophy on the right side suggests a dominant-hand preference consistent with right-handed bow use. Princess Noub-Hotep provides a particularly clear example, evidenced by the bowing of her second metacarpal and the presence of arrows in her burial assemblage (Figure 13B). The broader archaeological and bioarchaeological record demonstrates that such activity patterns have deep historical roots. Comparative data from Neolithic contexts—including analyses of yew bow technology, entheseal changes signatures, and early ritualized hunting imagery—further corroborate the long-standing association between archery and characteristic upper-limb biomechanical adaptations (Thomas, 2014). These signatures suggest that both the king and the royal women engaged in intensive, skilled martial or ritualized activity, not merely symbolic roles. Studies of activity patterns in past populations have shown that skeletal markers reflect habitual labor and culturally specific practices. Differences in activity, including gendered roles, have been widely documented, with males often showing higher trauma rates and females displaying more uniform patterns (Robb, 2002). However, the Dahshur evidence complicates such models, suggesting that elite women engaged in physically demanding and skilled activities. This indicates that status could redefine or expand expected gender roles. Within an osteobiographical framework, these findings demonstrate how material culture and bodily practice are inseparable: Objects were not simply deposited in the tomb but were used during life, leaving lasting signatures on the skeleton.

4.6 Developmental anomalies and kinship

Multiple individuals display congenital spinal anomalies: Princess Ita's spina bifida (S3–S5), Princess Khenmet's cleft neural arch of C1, and King Hor and Princess Noub-Hotep's sacralization and facet tropism. These reflect recurring axial variation consistent with hereditary traits (Barnes, 2012). Non-metric traits, including bilateral Allen's fossa, septal apertures, and tibial squatting facets, recur across individuals, indicating shared genetics and habitual postures. Together with the archaeological context, these biological markers support familial ties and endogamy within the Twelfth–Thirteenth Dynasty royal line. The recurrence of developmental anomalies and non-metric traits across individuals supports the interpretation of close familial relationships and possible endogamous practices within the royal lineage. Such patterns align with the spatial clustering of burials and reinforce the importance of kinship in structuring both life and death. Importantly, bioarchaeological studies emphasize that biological variation must be interpreted in conjunction with social context. The Dahshur evidence demonstrates that kinship was expressed through both inherited traits and mortuary organization, creating a multidimensional representation of identity.

4.7 Degeneration, posture, and habitual practices

Degenerative changes—including Schmorl's nodes, osteoarthritis, and squatting facets (Rogers and Waldron, 1995; Ubelaker, 1979; Waldron, 2009)—indicate repeated mechanical stress linked to habitual activities. These patterns do not reflect generalized labor but structured movement, potentially associated with archery, ritual postures, or controlled bodily practices. Bioarchaeological studies have shown that degenerative changes are best understood within the framework of long-term activity patterns and life course processes. The Dahshur individuals exhibit consistent patterns suggesting disciplined and repeated physical actions, reinforcing the interpretation of embodied elite roles. Schmorl's nodes in Princesses Ita and Khenmet indicate axial stress or spinal trauma (Rogers and Waldron, 1995; Waldron, 2009). Their presence in elite women suggests physical strain derived from specialized activities such as archery or ritual posture rather than manual labor (Kilgore et al., 1997; Merbs, 1983). Princess Noub-Hotep exhibits thoracic osteoarthritis but no long bone DJD, suggesting targeted mechanical stress. Her strong dorsal attachments and distal tibial squatting facets reflect habitual kneeling or squatting (Ubelaker, 1979), consistent with ritual or archery practices associated with elite women. The Dahshur evidence demonstrates that skeletal alterations, burial practices, and material culture should be interpreted as an integrated system. Following approaches in social bioarchaeology and osteobiography (Hosek and Robb, 2019; Hosek et al., 2021), these findings reflect variability rather than uniformity. As noted by Robb (2002), human lives follow structured yet flexible trajectories shaped by social conditions.

4.8 Embalming materials

FTIR-ATR analysis of resinous materials adhering to the Dahshur skeletal remains reveals a consistent mixture of frankincense and Juniperus oxycedrus resin, indicating standardized embalming practices during the Middle Kingdom. These substances were most likely procured through southern trade networks linking Egypt with Punt, the Horn of Africa, and Nubia (Brown, 2010; Meeks, 2016, pp. 53–80). Archaeological evidence from Mersa Gawasis further demonstrates that state-sponsored expeditions to the Land of Punt were specifically organized to acquire aromatic gum resins, particularly frankincense from the Boswellia genus, rather than relying on Levantine sources (Meeks, 2016, pp. 53–80; Fattovich, 2018). This resin profile is consistent with the acquisition of high-value aromatics reserved for elite mortuary practices.

In contrast, evidence from the New Kingdom indicates that juniper used in embalming was primarily derived from Juniperus phoenicea, a species native to Syria and the eastern Mediterranean (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin, 2011; Saleem and El Merghani, 2024). This shift highlights a chronological change in resin procurement strategies. Middle Kingdom assemblages, including those from Dahshur, instead relied on Juniperus oxycedrus, likely imported from Upper Nile regions such as Nubia and Sudan, where its berries were commonly used in ritual offerings and medicinal contexts rather than in later resin-based sealing compounds (Huber, 2024).

The identification of frankincense and Juniperus oxycedrus thus situates the Dahshur individuals within broader economic and ritual networks. As these materials were not locally available in significant quantities, their use necessitated organized acquisition through long-distance exchange systems, including expeditions to Punt and connections with Nubian regions. The consistent application of these resins across individuals suggests that embalming was not an individualized process but rather part of a regulated system of elite funerary treatment. When considered alongside the osteological evidence, the use of embalming materials contributes to a coherent pattern in which elite identity was reinforced at multiple stages, from lived experience and embodied practice to post-mortem preparation and mortuary display.

5 Conclusion

The bioarchaeological reassessment of the Dahshur royal remains offers a transformative perspective on the life histories and biological identity of the late Middle Kingdom elite (c. 1850–1700 BCE). By synthesizing osteological, radiological, and chemical data, this study moves beyond historically descriptive accounts to reconstruct a biocultural narrative of health, medical intervention, and shared ancestry. First, there is a paradox of privilege, where despite elite status, individuals experienced early-life metabolic stress (King Hor) and adult-onset metabolic disease (Princess Khenmet). Nevertheless, these individuals possessed the environmental support and nutritional advantages necessary to reach mature adulthood. Second, the group demonstrates a high incidence of healed trauma, which serves as direct skeletal evidence for the efficacy of advanced medical care consistent with the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Third, the prevalence of degenerative joint disease, particularly Schmorl's nodes, reveals that elite life was not without significant physical demands, which were likely activity-specific rather than labor-based. Fourth, a cluster of rare spinal and developmental anomalies (e.g., spina bifida, facet tropism, sacralization) likely suggests a shared hereditary lineage among the individuals. Collectively, these findings paint a detailed picture of a royal family, whose biological privilege—manifested in access to superior care and a protected environment—did not fully shield them from the physiological challenges of their time, ranging from childhood adversity to the biomechanical costs of their unique social roles.

Habitual activity patterns within the cohort reflect a specialized elite lifestyle rather than generalized manual labor. The disparity between relatively healthy appendicular joints and significant spinal stress, combined with robust muscle attachments related to precision gripping and archery, indicates a life defined by ritualized movement and skilled force. The presence of tibial squatting facets across multiple individuals suggests shared postural habits potentially linked to ritual or sedentary elite social functions.

A critical contribution of this research is the identification of biological affinity within the group. The high frequency of specific congenital axial anomalies—including facet tropism, sacralization, and cleft neural arches—serves as a strong proxy for genetic relatedness, confirming the endogamous nature of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasty royal lines. This is further reinforced by a standardized funerary tradition, as FTIR-ATR analysis confirmed the consistent use of a protective frankincense and juniper resin mixture across all remains.

In summary, this reassessment demonstrates the vital role of bioarchaeology in reconstructing ancient Egyptian life. By correlating skeletal markers with historical and chemical evidence, the study successfully refines individual identities and familial relationships, ultimately providing a comprehensive window into the health, movement, and standard of care afforded to the Dahshur royalty. Future research involving aDNA and stable isotope analysis will be essential to further elucidate the geographic origins and complex kinship patterns of this elite cohort.

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