On a global scale, generally economic driven activities (i.e., packaging, shipping, fishing, tourism and aquaculture) are the key drivers responsible for increasing amounts of marine litter (Löhr et al., 2017; Watkins and ten Brink, 2017; Abalansa et al., 2020). The peer-reviewed articles from 2012 to 2022 revealed that in the context of the Windward Islands, marine litter are driven not only by fulfilling fundamental human economic needs but a number of social issues as well.

Over, thirty per cent (30%) of the peer reviewed articles generalised national socio-economic driven activities (namely, fisheries, tourism, recreational, construction, packaging) associated with improper waste disposal as the major source of marine litter in the Windward Islands. More than half of the grey literature reviewed specifically highlighted tourism as a shared and major contributor of marine litter throughout all the islands.

The economic contribution of the tourism industry has been arguably recognised as the most important and valuable industry for WCR over the years (Zappino, 2005; Thomas, 2015; Spencer, 2019). Further, the region is known as the most tourism-dependent region of the world (Phillips, 2014; Peterson, 2020; Mahon et al., 2021; Walker et al., 2021; Spencer and Spencer, 2022). Tourism contributes significantly to employment, foreign exchange, and national income. Although other industries make significant economic contributions, the region is highly identified internationally in terms of its tourist destination image (Thomas, 2015; Liao and Sánchez Aguilera, 2020). Moreover, the tourism economy also has a co-dependent and mutually beneficial relationship with other economic sectors including agriculture, transportation, construction, and Information Technology (Spencer, 2019). These sectors benefit directly from tourism and in turn provide valuable inputs to tourism (Spencer, 2019).

Nautical and coastal tourism play key roles in terms of contribution to general tourism and the overall economy in WCR and even more so, the Windward Islands. WCR is a renowned destination for nautical tourism with more than thirty million (30,000,000) cruise ship visits in 2019 (Caribbean Tourism Organisation, 2020). Cruising is the Caribbean represents 38.9% of total global itineraries (da Silva, 2021). Also, approximately ten million yachting holidays are taken in the Caribbean every year (Ajagunna and Casanova, 2022). Moreover, it is well known that the convenient archipelago passage of the Windward Islands encourages yachting tourism (Bankoff, 2017).

As for coastal tourism, according to Mendoza-Gonzalez et al. (2018), the majority of Caribbean tourism is coastal tourism, which credits the use and availability of beaches and ocean views. Using the data available for St. Lucia, it is important to note that St. Lucia’s tourism industry accounted for 51% of total domestic employment in 2017 and is projected to be 62.7% in 2028 (World Travel and Tourism Council [WTTC], 2018; Sutton, 2019). Moreover, their tourism industry significantly contributed to their GDP at 41.8% of total contribution in 2017 and is also projected to increase to 54.9% by 2028 (WTTC, 2018; Sutton, 2019). Coastal tourism significantly influences these figures, and the preservation of the associated environments are pertinent to facilitate the projections.

Unfortunately, the same industries that local people depend on for a living, are the same industries that contribute to the marine litter issue in the region. Case in point is the tourism industry in St. Lucia. While the influx of tourists generates income and employment it also threatens St. Lucia’s coastal and marine ecosystems and economy. Harasymiw (2021), describes the litter situation in St Lucia as an “environmental headache” for the country. The author uses cruise lines as an example to portray the connections between tourism and litter in the marine environment. The author stated that even prior to the disembarkment of tourists from their ships, damage is done. Cruise ships not only leak oil residues but various debris into the sea harming ocean ecosystems (Harasymiw, 2021). Additionally, once people get to land more problems arise simply because of the resources “needed-and depleted” in order to host vast amounts of people (Harasymiw, 2021). The generation of excessive waste and increases in marine litter are largely due to overwhelmed local waste management infrastructure. (Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit [GIZ], 2015). Tourists have also known to directly contribute to the problem by littering, as observed in the island of Grenada (GIZ, 2015) and St. Lucia (Harasymiw, 2021). As the Windward Islands’ economies are heavily dependent on beach tourism, this is an impending problem for these nations.

Regarding fisheries as a contributory factor, little information regarding the Windward Islands were available, except for the island of Dominica. The specific mention of abandoned, lost, discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) was absent in 95% of the total literature review. However, Dominica has been faced with the issue of driftwood debris from abandoned boats and traps since 2008 (UNEP, 2008; Lachmann et al., 2017). According to Lachmann et al. (2017), the debris on Dominica was dominated by driftwood, and plastic pollution was the second most common type of debris.

It is important to note the general inappropriate waste disposal behaviours of people within and outside of the major industries of tourism and fisheries. The grey literature also indicated that in the islands (specifically, Grenada, Dominica and St. Lucia, mismanaged household trash, recreational activities and illegal dumping continues to be major contributors to littering and marine litter. Further, the literature disclosed that a popular habit is the disposing of garbage over coastal cliffs edges which is a direct form of marine littering.

As it pertains to societal drivers, first, socio-politically, the region has different priorities such as pressing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) priorities including ending extreme poverty, better healthcare, reducing inequality, promoting economic growth, and developing sustainable cities, while considering climate change, governability and population growth pressure (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean [UN-ECLAC], 2018; Salvia et al., 2019; Mahlknecht et al., 2020). Salvia et al. (2019), states that the SDG 14, Life Below Water, received no expression of interest for research from experts in the Latin America and Caribbean (LACA) region. This can highly likely influence the political will to address marine litter as well.

Overall, there is little scientific research that investigates this and other drivers of marine debris in great detail that is specific to Eastern Caribbean much less its individual nations. Additionally, perhaps SIDS can be reluctant to disclose research data on marine pollution likely because it can compromise their revenue (particularly linked to tourism). In WCR, there is an unwillingness to share data from environmental and disaster risk management related research (Fanning et al., 2021; Omukuti et al., 2021).

The gaps in the scientific knowledge presents a problem for marine litter management (Schmuck et al., 2017). These gaps compromise the ability to prioritise prevention and other management efforts and to assess progress or effectiveness in implementation of measures. Within the last decade, it has been increasingly recognised that top-down approaches (with little to no local contribution) and generalised recommendations are futile, especially for Small Island Developing States (SIDS). An important first step in tackling several marine ubiquitous problems is conducting investigations at the community and local levels and integrating lessons learnt into discussion forums and policy proposals at higher levels (i.e., regional and then international) (Alexander et al., 2019; Sheridan et al., 2020).

In essence, the socio-economic demands create pressures. While the drivers offered insight into major socio-economic factors or forces that influence human activities that eventually perpetuates the issue of marine litter, pressures offer details into the stresses (and associated sources) these human activities place on the islands ² . Globally, consumer packaging (e.g., single-use bags, bottles, food containers, wrappers) make up a major portion of solid waste and plastics are the most dominant of packaging waste and marine litter (UNEP, 2021). Further, it has also been modelled that almost two-thirds of plastic waste in 2060 will be from short-lived items such as packaging, low-cost products, and textiles (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2022). Unfortunately for SIDS like the Windward Islands and Caribbean at large which are largely import dependent (CARICOM, 2013; Dorodnykh, 2017; Scobie, 2019), this only leads to pressure of a higher input of plastics and other solid waste into the environment and through a variety of sources. These sources are frequently classified as land-based or sea-based.

Most studies indicate that the main pressures identified are associated with land-based related issues including largely solid waste management stresses such as overwhelmed landfills, unnecessary waste materials, inefficient waste disposal, collection, and processing systems. In the SIDS dynamic, improper waste disposal and ineffective waste management likely has a strong correlation with marine litter. At least 50% of all the literature reviewed addressed plastics as a main waste management issue and linked it with the pressures it exerts on freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Wind and rivers represent a major vector for the introduction of litter particularly plastics to the ocean. Rivers transport 80% (Meijer et al., 2019; Ritchie, 2021) to 83% of the annual plastic debris into the marine environment worldwide (Landrigan et al., 2020; World Bank, 2021). In the case of WCR, up to 85% of marine litter in the Caribbean Sea is from land-based sources of solid waste (UNEP, 2019b). Other sources claim that as much as 90% of all the plastic that reaches the world’s oceans get flushed through just 10 rivers mostly located in Asia (Franzen, 2017; Lebreton et al., 2017). Once litter enters lotic freshwater systems, it is important to note there is also a separate set of associated pressures on freshwater ecosystems and the adjusted coastal environment, before it inevitably reaches the wider marine environment.

Pressures on solid waste management was further investigated using the grey literature and the biggest contributors to solid waste include organics, paper and plastics in the Windward Islands of Barbados, Grenada, St. Lucia and SVG (Figure 3). Once these and other debris make their way to the coastal or marine environments, they can pose a threat to related ecosystems (especially plastics pollution) and are generally unsightly (Inskipp, 2004; Agamuthu et al., 2019). A list of the wide range of marine litter sources were compiled and listed in Table 2.

A state change occurs when the normal state of the marine environment alters with special reference to the physio-chemical parameters (Elliott et al., 2017). The normal biological functioning at individual, population, community, or ecosystem levels has observable changes (Elliott et al., 2017). These changes are indicators of ecosystem quality, reflecting the ecosystem integrity, which may hinder ecosystem services which humans rely on (Mateus and Campuzano, 2008). In the context of solid waste, data on trends can be postulated based on the available literature, however in terms of changes in state of marine litter in the Windward Islands data on trends were unavailable due to lack of scientific research or inconsistencies in monitoring and clean-up activities among the islands. Budget restraints also affect amounts of litter collected per year (Diez et al., 2019).

However, there are two recent studies that may be used to infer on the status of ecosystem quality in the region, and they both involve microplastics (MPs). One study, performed by Bosker et al. (2018), evaluated the presence of MPs in beach sediments in four islands of the Lesser Antilles (i.e., Anguilla, St. Barthelemy, St. Eustatius, and St. Martin), all of which are north of the Windward Islands. All samples collected along the four islands contained MPs, with an average 261 ± 6 items/kg of dry sand. Another study by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) (2020) revealed that MPs have been also found in drinking water within the LACA region. Tracking the source and transport of MPs is challenging, however there is documented evidence of MPs sources into water from a range of different activities, infrastructure, and land uses (IDB, 2020). Yet, there is no confirmed evidence that links ingestion of MPs as a current exposure risk through drinking water in the region, likely due to lack of research.

As it pertains specifically to the Windward Islands, examples of state changes were identified and was further categorised into the following based on the literature: environmental health, ecological, and ecosystem services of state. Table 3 illustrates examples of states within the Windward Islands.

In the context of marine litter, it is important to define some indicators that can be used to measure and assess the possible impacts of marine litter (Abalansa et al., 2020). Most indicators are associated with impacts on human welfare such as health and socio-economic impacts which are more easily identified (Abalansa et al., 2020; Miranda et al., 2020). This is applicable to the Windward Islands. Socio-economic impacts can include the compromising of leisure and recreational activities (Krelling et al., 2017), the costs associated with removal of coastal and marine debris (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2018; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], 2020b) and costs to tourism, fisheries and shipping sectors, loss of jobs, and impact on social wellbeing (Krelling et al., 2017; Watkins and ten Brink, 2017; Williams and Rangel-Buitrago, 2019; OECD, 2020; Aretoulaki et al., 2021). Environmental impacts on the other hand are more difficult to assess (Miranda et al., 2020), but tend to comprise the adverse effects directly on biota and on human health in the Windward Island dynamic. In other nations (mostly developed) changes in the ecosystems functioning (biological, geochemical and physical processes and components of the system) can be assessed (Miranda et al., 2020).

In the Windward Island context, it is understood that a growing health hazard and continued potential risk include litter that are considered water holding items (coconut shells, bottles, bags, cups, tires, buckets, tins). These trash items are breeding grounds for mosquitoes, such as Aedes aegypti that can transmit dengue fever (Raffoul, et al., 2006). Many of these trash items can be particularly observed along various coastal ecosystems in each island especially where illegal dumping is evident. A compounding factor is the fact that A. aegypti not only tolerates freshwater but also brackish water of higher salinity (up to 15 ppt) (Ramasamy et al., 2011; Rao et al., 2011). Aedes aegypti has been more problematic with illegal dumping than with littering, because of the quantity of garbage accumulated in one area (Raffoul, et al., 2006).

Along the same context of human health concerns is that of plastic litter various pressures on freshwater and marine ecosystems. This in turn is thought to have an impact on both wildlife and human welfare. There are few papers that suggest the increase in ingestion of MPs by marine and coastal organisms in the Caribbean (Vendel et al., 2017; Morrall et al., 2018; Garcés-Ordóñez et al., 2020). Morrall et al. (2018), found that 97.6% of commercial-fish samples from Grenada contained microplastic particles. Studies have indicated that microplastics entering the human body via ingestion or inhalation can lead to various health implications, including inflammation, genotoxicity, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and necrosis (Wright and Kelly, 2017; Koelmans et al., 2019; Hu and Palić, 2020). These are all also linked to an array of negative health outcomes such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation, auto-immune conditions, neuro-degenerative diseases, and stroke (Wright and Kelly, 2017; Koelmans et al., 2019; Hu and Palić, 2020). Moreover, a recent study has provided evidence to support that polymers from plastics are now detected in human blood (Leslie et al., 2022).

Regarding the loss of biodiversity, there is insufficient statistical data available that directly links marine litter to reductions and losses in biodiversity through entanglement, ingestion, and smothering. However, the Caribbean islands generally recognize comparable impacts to their coastal and marine ecosystems, human populations, and economic activities as seen in several global case studies (highlighted in Section 1). It is noteworthy that the region’s unique aspect is the probable association between marine litter and diseases as well as invasive species.

Marine litter, particularly plastic debris, serve as vectors for diseases and invasive species and can also create a physical environment that favours the growth and spread of pathogens. The presence of plastic debris in the water can provide a substrate for pathogenic microorganisms, allowing them to colonize and grow. This can lead to an increased likelihood of coral infections and the spread of diseases such as the most recent spread of stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD).

SCTLD is a relatively new coral disease that has emerged in the Caribbean basin in recent years and has rapidly spread across the region, affecting nearly thirty (30) different coral species (Camacho-Vite et al., 2022). Several factors have been proposed as possible contributors to the outbreak of SCTLD, including changes in ocean temperature, water quality, and the introduction of pathogenic microorganisms (Estrada-Saldívar et al., 2021).

Marine debris may serve as a potential vector for the proliferation of SCTLD in the Caribbean, and this is gaining traction within the scientific community. It is postulated that the presence of bacterial-causing pathogens in the litter may facilitate their dissemination to coral colonies, while simultaneously compromising the structural integrity of the corals, which may exacerbate the incidence and severity of the disease. This emerging line of inquiry underscores the need for further investigation into the relationship between marine litter and coral health, as well as the imperative for effective management of waste in marine ecosystems.

In terms of bio-invasions, there is a lack of recent observations and published studies that would indicate a correlation between marine litter and bio-invasions specific to WCR. However historical data would show that it has been the reason for introduction of new species into the region, which has the potential to proliferate and become harmful in the marine environment, in which then it will be termed an invasive species. Bryozoan (Membranipora tuberculata originally the Tasman Sea and Electra tenella) for instance, were found on plastics washed ashore on the Florida coast, USA, the Caribbean Sea. The findings are supported by earlier research by Winston (1982) and Winston et al. (1997). Moreover, Minchin (1996), documented the transportation of barnacles across the North Atlantic Ocean by attaching to plastic debris. The results underscore the potential role of plastic debris in the long-distance dispersal of marine organisms, which has important implications for marine ecology and conservation.

In the context of socio-economic impacts, the literature revealed that the industries that are impacted by marine litter mainly include tourism and fisheries. The same industries that are also listed as drivers to the problem of marine litter. Religion and culture are other topics identified as being impacted by marine litter. Marine litter impacts the economies in a few ways. One, in terms of tourism, it impacts the chances of tourists returning to an area. Studies show that if debris were to reach a significant amount on beaches-usually more than 15 items/m2, more than 85% of tourist beachgoers would look elsewhere when searching for a coastal region to vacation (Williams et al., 2016; Krelling et al., 2017). In the Windward Islands dynamics marine litter may have directly or indirectly affected job productivity. Two, in terms of fisheries, main issues described were reduced fishery yields and decrease revenues from fishing industries due to a combination of impacts of marine litter on fishermen resources including impacts such as propeller entanglements, foulings of gill nets and hooks, damage to the fishing gear (Lachman et al., 2017; Diez et al., 2019). These problems tend to modify their fishing behaviour such as avoidance of some fishing areas, and use of different types of gear. This sometimes goes against fishers’ best economic interest. In terms of social dynamics and specific to the region of the Windward Islands, there were concerns related to small beaches and bay often used for baptism becoming dump sites and polluted (Garcia et al., 2019).

Four major challenges with current responses and recommendations were identified in the review. First, dealing with marine litter in the Windward Island is not a high priority for the islands especially when compared to the issues concerning poverty, public health, inequalities, etc (UN-ECLAC, 2018; Salvia et al., 2019; Mahlknecht et al., 2020). Thus, responses to this issue have been mostly acknowledged in the various plans (i.e., grey literature) with generic recommendations and very little management activity occurring. The main management activities over the years include removal and monitoring chiefly via the International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) Day, which typically occurs once a year and is highly dependent on donations (Graham, 2022). Also, Governments tend to fund street sweeping especially after festivities. Street sweeping is a common means in the region of preventing litter from entering waterways but the service has limited coverage (Diez et al., 2019). The challenge however is that the data collected by the varying entities, is often improperly stored or speculated for inaccuracy or currency unfortunately (GIZ, 2015). This lower level of priority for marine litter certainly challenges the way forward.

Second, as it relates to the Windward Islands vulnerability to the impacts of global climate change (particularly exposure to increasing hurricanes and storms) and strong influence on marine debris, a managerial problem arises. The main agencies with responsibility for natural disasters rarely place emphasis on the topic of marine debris in its plan or assessment. Case in point, in 2020, the United States Agency for International Development- Eastern and Southern Caribbean (USAID/ESC) conducted a resilience assessment for the ESC region to better understand the interplay of the region’s socioeconomic, environmental, and institutional context with regards to natural hazards and human-induced stressors among other factors (Hansen and Hellmuth, 2020). The Grenada Resilience Profile Report by USAID (2021) has no information of issues or plans surrounding marine debris, pollution or waste management.

An additional challenge to consider are the modern and common issues associated with debris entrapped in Sargassum influx on beaches within the region. Sargassum is a genus of brown macro-algae that clusters into long algal mats that drift on the ocean surface and move along with ocean currents (Thompson et al., 2020). While it is a natural and important habitat for over 127 species of fish and 145 invertebrates, several of which are threatened and endangered, excessive blooms of sargassum can become a problem for coastal communities (Thompson et al., 2020). One issue is that these mats can trap and bring in marine litter, which can have negative impacts on both the marine environment and local economies.

A fourth challenge is related to the influence of international initiatives to help tackle marine litter.

Exhaustive overviews and analysis of all applicable initiatives for marine litter has been conducted (Jeftic et al., 2009; Chen, 2015; Carlini and Kleine, 2018; Frantzi et al., 2021) and specifically for WCR as well (UNEP, 2014; Graham, 2022). The varying options in this respective of global governance has resulted in fragmentation, with uneven regulations in different countries and uncoordinated policies (Dauvergne, 2018; Frantzi et al., 2021). Moreover, meeting the terms of some of these initiatives can be difficult as WCR are challenged by their unique situations. When it comes to recommendations derived from a top-down approach, it is pertinent that policymakers ensure that their island, first have the capacity (or pre-requisites) to tackle the global and regional initiatives and recommendations that come down or, accommodate plans for achieving the pre-requisites first.

Lack of the pre-requisites is a subsequent and fifth challenge. For instance, the review revealed that consumption pressures placed on the environment are a consequent of ineffective and overwhelmed solid waste management systems and infrastructure. Additionally, recycling opportunities are rare. Yet, a major suggestion coming out from the literature for WCR is adopting the circular economy approach. The circular economy model is one that has seen success in developed nations, however according to Graham (2022), WCR cannot afford to transition to circular economy at the moment. Graham (2022) also states that in order to accommodate circular economy in its entirety and capitalise on profitable chain opportunities, there is a clear need to first make SWM disposal, collection and infrastructure improvements top priorities. A key prerequisite to the circular economy is having effective waste management processes and infrastructure (Fedotkina et al., 2019; Luttenberger, 2020; Di Foggia and Beccarello, 2021; Graham, 2022).

The circular economy concept also largely involves changes in manufacturing and production to a more sustainable form (Global Environmental Facility [GEF], 2020; Velenturf and Purnell, 2021), an aspect which is currently inapplicable to the Windward Islands which mostly imports rather than manufacture its own products. Henceforth, recommendations from studies carried out in developed nations that have functioning waste management systems and product recyclability may serve as a point of reference or guide for lesser developed regions, e.g., WCR, but their conclusions cannot be directly inferred (Orona-Návar et al., 2022); at least not until SWM infrastructure has improved and there is opportunity and incentive to recycle. Moreover, there is a lack of empirical studies that investigates the profitability of adopting circular economy concepts for waste processing (Zaleski and Chawla, 2020). According to Zaleski and Chawla (2020), one of the primary reasons for this is the inaccessibility to market data used by waste management companies.

SWM inefficiency is clearly the common denominator for many marine litter issues and circular economy impracticalities for SIDS. Moreover, even islands classified as developed nations, e.g., the Greek islands, are faced with marine litter issues and solid waste management problems; especially given the increasing refugee crisis and consequently increasing amounts of solid waste (Skanavis and Kounani, 2016; Kounani and Skanavis, 2018). Yet, funding opportunities (both grants and even loans) are quite scarce in addressing this global need, and if available are often followed by one or a combination of complex environmental to socio-political factors. For the Windward Islands, these factors include adverse natural and weather conditions (World Bank, 2003), lack of sustainable operational funds like in the case of Dominica (World Bank, 2003), underestimation of actual construction costs like in the case of Grenada (World Bank, 2003), and may also include lack of appropriate planning, poor allocation or mismanagement of available funds or help, political issues or change in funding commitments. For instance, in Grenada, the island’s construction of their new landfill began since 2001 and was at first funded by the World Bank (World Bank, 2003; Mike, 2009). Two decades later, likely due to a combination of these complex factors, construction remains incomplete and according to HYDEA (2022), the new landfill is currently funded by the Caribbean Development Bank.

Countries increasingly use international agreements and initiatives to address common problems. The Windward Islands are signatory to a growing list of global agreements and other initiatives (see Table 4). Despite their supposed usefulness and increasing numbers, little is known about the effectiveness of these instruments in achieving their intended goals. Thus, it is essential to conduct investigations on how international agreements and initiatives impact national legislation, enactment, and compliance, especially in the context of global issues such as plastic debris to (Lambert and Wagner, 2018). For the Windwards Islands, investigating their implementation and compliance is crucial to identifying areas of improvement and guiding the development of future agreements and initiatives. This also ultimately ensures that the efforts to address global problems are more effective.

The effectiveness of global initiatives comes into question also, when lack of sufficient resources exist among SIDS to implement global agreements they have adopted. This is a pressing issue that requires attention from relevant responsible global entities. One way for global agreements to make more significant strides in a region like the Caribbean is to consider providing more support to the island nations in the implementation of these agreements. This could involve providing financial resources, technical expertise, and capacity-building programs that are tailored to the specific needs of each island. Unique island issues and needs have a tendency to get lost in translation or generalisatons in the process of negotiations for global agreements and initiatives.

Furthermore, the responsible global entities should work closely with small island nations to ensure that these agreements are effectively enforced and monitored. This could involve setting up mechanisms for regular reporting and review, as well as providing technical support for compliance monitoring and reporting. In cases where small island nations lack the necessary human resources to monitor and implement global agreements, alternative approaches can be explored such as leveraging technology with the responsible global bodies to automate reporting and monitoring. Also, the islands could work together to jointly report on the implementation of global agreements, sharing resources and expertise to reduce the burden on individual countries. Regional organizations could also play a role in supporting monitoring and reporting efforts by providing technical assistance and training to member states.

This paper also suggests that islands should exhibit solidarity by jointly accepting, enforcing, or even declining global demands, particularly in situations where resources for implementation are deficient. In instances where adoption is under consideration, it is imperative that assurances of assistance in implementation be secured before proceeding. With regards to solidarity as a recommendation, it is crucial that the Windward Islands and WCR at large prioritize their objectives and work together to push for effective solutions. One important step in this process is to demand greater transparency, disclosure, and collaboration among the global network of lead countries and stakeholders involved in international agreements and initiatives. However, the Windward Islands should not limit their efforts to their immediate geographic region alone. Instead, they should start considering transnational activism and solidarity going forward. Transnational activism among SIDS of the global south has in the past successfully raised their issues and suggestions related to oceans to the highest levels of global discussions, resulting in real local differences (Bueger and Wivel, 2018; Mead, 2021). By joining forces and building coalitions with other SIDS, the Windward Islands can amplify their voices and influence on the global stage, ultimately leading to more effective solutions for their circumstances.

One pressing matter that needs to be addressed thoroughly on the global stage, is how do SIDS deal with local and transboundary plastics? Many developed countries in the Global North have been exporting their plastic products as well as plastic waste to developing countries in the Global South for many years (Wang et al., 2020; Bergmann et al., 2022). Since, developing countries like SIDS of the WCR, lack the resources and infrastructure to safely manage plastic waste, it is imperative for both developed and developing countries to work together to create sustainable solutions for managing debris especially plastic waste. This could involve investing in waste management infrastructure and technology needed in developing countries, enforcing international regulations on plastic waste exports and increasing recycling and waste reduction efforts in all countries particularly those with large-scale manufacturers. Simon et al. (2021) argues that to fully prevent plastic pollution for instance, it is essential to phase out the production of virgin plastic by 2040. Virgin plastic refers to newly produced plastic, rather than recycled plastic. The authors point out that despite efforts to increase recycling and reduce plastic waste, the production of plastic has continued to grow, and plastic pollution remains a major problem.

The timing of the Global Plastics Treaty (GPT) also known as the Global Treaty on Plastic Pollution is therefore very crucial. In March 2022, the United Nations Environmental Assembly adopted a resolution to address plastic pollution, which entails the establishment of a comprehensive and legally binding global treaty on plastics in 2024 (UNEP, 2022a). WCR was represented at the initial Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee session that aimed to develop the GPT (UNEP, 2022b; Ambrose and Hassanali, 2023), but participation was relatively low. With forthcoming sessions, it is imperative for more WCR nations to capitalize on their presence in the ongoing discussions to tackle plastic pollution in the oceans. This presents an opening for the region to reinforce international collaboration aimed at mitigating plastic usage. Further, based on the results of this study the GPT could support WCR SIDS by.

1) Enabling sustainable tourism: As mentioned in Section 1.2 Caribbean islands rely heavily on tourism, which can contribute to plastic pollution. The GPT could encourage the development of sustainable tourism practices that reduce plastic waste, such as eco-friendly packaging and the use of reusable containers.