Ecological risk assessment of pesticide residues in diverse farming landscapes of central Zambia

Abstract

Agricultural intensification in Zambia has led to widespread reliance on pesticides to safeguard crop yields, yet concerns about their ecological consequences remain insufficiently addressed. This study helps to fill this gap by evaluating the extent and ecological risks associated with pesticide contamination in soils from Chibombo and Mkushi Districts in Central Zambia. We used a two-stage nested research design. First, locations (districts) contained different farming systems (commercial, emergent, and smallholder). Within each farming system, we measured and compared the levels of various pesticide residues, followed by ecological risk assessments (single pollution index and comprehensive pollution index). Pesticide residues were extracted using a modified QuEChERS method and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). The analysis of pesticide residues indicated that there were significant variations between farming systems in several pesticide residues (acetamiprid, chlorpyriphos, cypermethrin and profenofos). However, there were no significant differences in pesticide residue accumulation between districts. Smallholder farms were generally associated with high insecticide residues (especially chlorpyrifos with a range of 1,494–5,961 μg/kg), emergent farms showed elevated levels of both insecticides and herbicides (notably cypermethrin and fomesafen), while commercial farms were dominated by herbicide residues (acifluorfen, fomesafen, glyphosate and its primary metabolite; aminomethylphosphonic acid). Ecological risk indices indicated significant threats to soil microbial communities, underscoring the potential for long-term disruption of ecosystem services. The data highlights chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin as key pollutants of concern. The study concludes that current pesticide management practices in Central Province pose measurable ecological risks, necessitating urgent policy interventions and adoption of sustainable pest management strategies.

1 Introduction

Across the world, pesticides are widely used to secure agricultural productivity, but their harmful impacts are increasingly documented. Studies show that pesticide residues persist in soils (Wang et al., 2019), contaminate water bodies (Sang et al., 2020; Wei et al., 2021; Sang et al., 2022), and accumulate in food chains (Wang et al., 2013; Shi et al., 2020; Fang et al., 2021), posing risks to human health and biodiversity (Tarazona et al., 2021). The United Nations Environment Programme highlights that excessive and poorly managed pesticide use contributes to ecological degradation, endocrine disruption, and chronic illnesses among exposed populations (UNEP, 2022). Despite international conventions and guidelines, enforcement remains uneven, and many countries continue to struggle with balancing crop protection needs against long-term environmental sustainability. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the harmful use of pesticides is particularly acute (Sheahan et al., 2017). Agricultural intensification has led to rising pesticide consumption, often without adequate training or protective measures for farmers. A systematic review by Fuhrimann et al. (2022) found widespread pesticide residues in soils, water, and food crops across 37 countries in the region, with organochlorines and other highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) still in use despite bans. Farmers frequently lack access to protective gear, and monitoring systems are weak, resulting in high levels of occupational exposure and ecological contamination. The problem is compounded by limited awareness of safe handling practices and inadequate enforcement of pesticide regulations, making rural communities especially vulnerable to health risks and environmental damage.

Agriculture in Zambia remains heavily dependent on pesticides to safeguard crop yields, particularly in fruit and vegetable production (Siyunda et al., 2022). While these chemicals are vital for pest control, their widespread application has resulted in detectable residues in food crops, raising concerns about food safety and environmental health (Mwanja et al., 2017). Pesticide residues not only pose risks to consumer health but also persist in soils, water bodies, and non-target organisms, thereby disrupting ecological balance (Li et al., 2014; Zhen et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2012). Despite the existence of regulatory frameworks for pesticide lifecycle management, enforcement and monitoring remain limited (MCTI, 2021). This challenge is particularly acute in Central Province of Zambia, where diverse farming landscapes, from smallholder plots to large-scale commercial farms, intensify pesticide use without adequate ecological risk assessment.

Studies in Zambia have focused on pesticide residues in harvested crops and their implications for food safety (FAO, 2022). While these findings are critical, they overlook broader ecological consequences. Residues can accumulate in soils, altering microbial communities and nutrient cycling, which in turn affects soil fertility and long-term sustainability (Mayer et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2022). Aquatic ecosystems are equally vulnerable, as pesticide runoff contaminates rivers and streams, threatening fish populations and aquatic biodiversity essential for local livelihoods (Silva et al., 2017; Raimondo and Forbes, 2022). Pollinators and beneficial insects, crucial for crop production, are also at risk, leading to cascading effects on ecosystem services (Charles et al., 2022). Another gap in the literature lies in geographic coverage. Much of the research has been localized to specific districts, leaving Central Province underrepresented despite its role as the major agricultural hub nationally (Mwanja et al., 2017). Central Province hosts diverse farming systems; smallholder, emergent, and commercial, each with distinct pesticide use patterns and ecological vulnerabilities. Without data from this region, national pesticide management strategies risks are incomplete and poorly tailored to local realities (ZEMA, 2017). Furthermore, most studies adopt a crop-centric or food safety perspective, overlooking cumulative and landscape-level effects of pesticide residues (FAO, 2023). The absence of holistic ecological risk assessment frameworks hinders the development of sustainable pesticide management strategies that balance productivity with environmental integrity (Liu et al., 2013; Shahid et al., 2019; Wan et al., 2025a).

Trophic cascade disruptions constitute a pivotal ecological pathway through which pesticide use intensifies agricultural risks. By diminishing populations of non-target organisms such as predatory insects, pollinators, and aquatic invertebrates, pesticides destabilize food webs and trigger cascading effects across ecosystems (Wan et al., 2025b). The loss of natural predators like ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps often results in pest resurgence, reinforcing chemical dependency and undermining sustainable crop protection (Chen and Li, 2026). Likewise, declines in pollinator abundance reduce fruit and vegetable yields, directly threatening food security and rural livelihoods (Faburé et al., 2025). In aquatic environments, pesticide runoff suppresses insect larvae and small fish populations, which cascades upward to larger fish species critical for nutrition and income (Wan et al., 2026a). Soil microbial communities, essential for nutrient cycling and resilience to climate variability, are also disrupted, weakening long-term fertility. Importantly, cross-continental empirical evidence demonstrates that greater plant diversity suppresses pest populations and reduces reliance on pesticides, offering a natural buffer against these cascading risks (Wan et al., 2026b). These interconnected effects highlight how localized pesticide applications can escalate into landscape-level consequences, particularly in Zambia’s Central Province where diverse farming systems overlap.

This study seeks to address these gaps by conducting an ecological risk assessment of pesticide residues in diverse farming landscapes of Central Province, Zambia. The objectives were (i) to quantify pesticide residues in soils across smallholder, emergent, and commercial farming systems, thereby providing a comprehensive picture of contamination levels, (ii) to evaluate ecological risks posed to non-target organisms and essential ecosystem functions and (iii) to compare residue levels and associated risks across smallholder, emergent, and commercial farming landscapes, highlighting how farming practices and scale influence ecological vulnerability. The study generates evidence-based recommendations to inform sustainable pesticide management and guide policy interventions. By integrating ecological risk assessment into pesticide monitoring, this research aimed to ensure that agricultural productivity is balanced with ecological integrity and long-term environmental health.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area description

The study was conducted in Chibombo and Mkushi Districts of Central Province of Zambia (Figure 1). Both districts are recognized for their substantial pesticide use compared to other districts in the province (Malambo et al., 2019). Chibombo and Mkushi are located in agroecological region IIa of Central Province of Zambia. The region is dominated by luvisols in Mkushi with localised ferralsols while in Chibombo, acrisols are the dominant soil with localized cambisols in the valleys. Agroecological region IIa receives approximately 800–1000 mm of annual rainfall.

FIGURE 1

2.2 Farming landscape description

Central Province encompasses all major farming systems found across Zambia, namely, commercial, emergent, and smallholder farming systems. Commercial farms typically cultivate areas exceeding 20 ha, are highly mechanized, and focus on cash crops such as maize, soybeans, and wheat. These systems rely heavily on agrochemical inputs, including fertilizers and pesticides, and operate year-round through irrigation and advanced machinery. Fertilizer application (Urea and Compound D) ranges between 150–200 kg/ha per cycle, and this is usually done from one cropping cycle to another throughout the year (Moss, 2026). Some commercial farmers practice fallowing after 4–5 years of operation. While modern agronomic practices enhance efficiency, they also intensify pesticide use, elevating risks of soil contamination. Smallholder farms, by contrast, cultivate less than 5 ha, are minimally mechanized, and depend on rainfall, making operations seasonal. Crops are primarily grown for household consumption, and although pesticide use is less intensive, poor handling practices, limited training, and reliance on outdated chemicals still contribute to contamination (Malambo et al., 2019). Emergent farms occupy an intermediate scale (5–20 ha), blending crop production with livestock rearing. This integration promotes resilience through manure recycling, yet pesticide residues disrupt ecosystem balance by entering soils, plants, and livestock feed (Bagayou et al., 2026).

Beyond operational differences, these farming systems also diverge in intrinsic biodiversity. Smallholder farms often maintain heterogeneous crop mixtures and landraces, fostering genetic variability that buffers pest outbreaks through multi-trophic interactions. Emergent farms balance traditional diversity with semi-intensive monocultures, offering moderate resilience. Commercial farms, however, emphasize uniform, high-yield cultivars, reducing biodiversity and heightening vulnerability to pest resurgence, thereby reinforcing chemical dependency. As highlighted by Wan et al. (2022), plant genetic diversity stabilizes trophic interactions and mitigates pest outbreaks, underscoring how biodiversity gradients across farm scales drive divergent pesticide residue profiles.

2.3 Study design

The study employed a two-stage nested research design in which location (districts) was treated as a fixed factor, while farming systems were considered as a random factor nested within locations (Figure 2).

FIGURE 2

2.4 Soil sample collection and pretreatment

Soil sample collection was undertaken during the 2024/2025 farming season in three phases for each sampled site. Phase 1 was between 15 Novermber to 15 December (beginning of the rain season), phase 2 between 15 January to 15 February (mid of rain season) and lastly, phase 3 between 15 March to 15 April (end of rain season). In each district, farms within commercial, emergent and smallholder farming systems that were exposed to 15 years or more of crop production, were randomly selected and soil samples were collected from these farms. A total of 18 sampling sites were identified, 9 per district comprising 3 commercial, 3 emergent, and 3 smallholder farmers. A soil auger (500 mL volume), was used in the soil sampling process. On each farm, three points were selected within the farmer’s soya bean field and 3 samples were obtained from each sampling point at the depth of 0–20cm, within the radius of 10 m to reduce between-sample variations. The 3 soil samples obtained from each sampling point, within the farm were then mixed together and a 500g (fresh weight) sample was taken. Therefore, 3 soil samples from each farm per sampling phase were obtained. All soil samples were transported to the soil chemistry laboratory at the University of Zambia for pretreatment. Soil samples were air dried at ambient temperature, and sieved using a 20-mesh sieve to remove gravel, stones, plant roots and other debris. Thereafter, samples were kept at 4 °C and shipped to Wageningen University for pesticide analysis.

2.5 Pesticides analysis

Pesticide residues were extracted using a modified QuEChERS method and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Glyphosate (GLY) and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) were extracted using methods similar to the method described by (Yang et al., 2015; Bento et al., 2016). Method validation followed EU SANTE guidelines, with calibration, recovery, precision, and matrix effect checks ensuring accuracy, reproducibility, and reliable quantification (Detailed instrumental conditions and apparatus, and pesticide analysis methodology are provided in the Supplementary Material).

For each quantified pesticide residue, both the single-factor pollution index and the comprehensive pollution index were calculated for every sampling site. To assess overall environmental quality, the study employed the Nemerow multi-factor index as adopted from Zhang and Yan (2012). This method combines the average pollution value derived from the single-factor indices with the maximum concentration of pesticide residues detected at each site, thereby providing a more balanced measure of contamination severity (Zhang et al., 2018). The single-factor index and the comprehensive pollution index were computed using the following formulas;

In Equation 1, Pi represents the environmental quality index for pesticide residue i. Si denotes the evaluation criterion for pesticide residue i (mg/kg), while Ci refers to the quantified concentration of pesticide residue i (mg/kg). In Equation 2, CPI indicates the soil comprehensive pollution index, Pi max is the maximum value among the single-factor pollution indices, and P̅i is the average of the single-factor indices. In this study, ecotoxicological endpoints, expressed as No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) values, were employed as reference standards to assess soil environmental quality (Table 1). These values were obtained from standardized toxicity tests using earthworms (Eisenia fetida) as representative bioindicator organisms. Pollution classification followed He et al. (2020): p ≤ 0.7 = non-pollution; 0.7 < p ≤ 1 = slight pollution; 1 < p ≤ 2 = mild pollution; 2 < p ≤ 3 = moderate pollution; and p > 3 = heavy pollution.

2.6 Data analysis

Data were pooled from three sampling phases and a nested analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed and considered statistically significant at α < 0.05 to compare pesticide concentration. All analyses were conducted using SPSS v20, with post hoc tests applied to identify specific differences among farming systems. Homogeneity of variance was tested using Levene’s test, while normality of residuals was assessed through the Shapiro-Wilk test and visual inspection of Q-Q plots. Logarithmic (log10) transformations were used for highly skewed data, while square-root transformations were applied to moderately skewed distributions.

2.7 Method limitations and future outlook

The study’s methods revealed pesticide accumulation patterns but did not fully capture causal chains linking farm type, residues, and soil degradation. Future research should apply advanced statistical approaches, such as structural equation modeling or path analysis proposed by Wang et al. (2025), to strengthen causal inference and guide sustainable agricultural policy.

3 Results

3.1 Descriptive statistics of pesticide concentrations in agricultural soils across different farming landscapes

Tables 2–4 present descriptive statistics of twelve pesticides and glyphosate’s primary metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) across farming landscapes. Herbicides such as acifluorfen, clodinafop-propargyl, fomesafen, haloxyfop-methyl, glyphosate, and AMPA showed higher concentrations in commercial farms, with levels ascending from smallholder to emergent to commercial farming systems. High skewness values were observed for acifluorfen (2.45), cypermethrin (2.33), and glyphosate (2.28).

3.2 Pesticide statistical analysis across location and farming landscapes

Statistical analysis reveals no significant differences (P > 0.05) in all the pesticide residue accumulation between the two locations under study (Table 5). However, there were significant differences (P < 0.05) among farming systems in four pesticides; acetamiprid, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and profenofos (Figure 3). In contrast, the other pesticides, including herbicides, did not exhibit significant differences across farming systems. Notably, the data revealed that the accumulation of glyphosate and its primary metabolite (AMPA) was statistically non-significant both across locations and between farming systems. This pattern suggests the widespread and consistent utilization of glyphosate throughout farming landscapes.

FIGURE 3

The accumulation rate of chlorpyrifos was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of all other pesticides across both smallholder and emergent farming systems (Figure 3). Within smallholder farms, concentrations ranged from 1,494 to 5,961 μg/kg, exceeding the permissible limits established by the WHO/FAO in certain locations. Some of the pesticides, such as emamectin benzoate were almost non-detectable across location and farming systems except in a few commercial farming landscapes.

3.3 Environmental quality evaluation using pesticide residue indices in Chibombo and Mkushi

The results presented in Table 6 show clear differences in pesticide residue pollution indices across farming landscapes in Chibombo and Mkushi districts. Chlorpyrifos consistently emerged as the dominant contaminant, with particularly high single pollution index values in smallholder sites in Mkushi SH1 (Pi = 5.962) and SH2 (Pi = 3.608), resulting in comprehensive pollution indices of 4.234 and 2.576 respectively. These values indicate severe contamination compared to Chibombo’s smallholder sites, which recorded moderate pollution levels (CPI = 1.063–1.491). Emergent farms also showed notable contamination, especially Chibombo EF1 (CPI = 2.775) and Mkushi EF2 (CPI = 1.130), largely driven by Chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin residues. In contrast, commercial farms across both districts exhibited minimal contamination, with comprehensive indices ranging from 0.032 to 0.219 in Chibombo and 0.045 to 0.110 in Mkushi. The data highlight chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin as key pollutants of concern, with smallholder farming systems showing higher contamination levels than commercial farming systems in both Districts.

3.4 Pollution profiles across farming systems in Central Province

The assessment shows that contamination patterns varied strongly by farming systems (Table 7). Commercial sites were largely free from pollution, while emergent farms displayed slight impacts. Smallholder farms contributed most to mild through heavy contamination, underscoring how scale, accessibility, and management practices drive ecological risk across Central Province’s agricultural landscapes.

4 Discussion

The findings from Central Province reveal clear distinctions in pesticide contamination across smallholder, emergent, and commercial farming systems. These differences are not merely quantitative but reflect broader socio-economic, regulatory, and ecological dynamics that shape pesticide use. By situating these results within global research, several critical themes emerge: accessibility and affordability of pesticides, regulatory enforcement, farming scale, and ecological risk.

4.1 Smallholder farming and reliance on organophosphates

Smallholder farms were dominated by the residues of insecticides among the pesticide types under study. The accumulation trend of pesticides in the soils, reflected the application habits among smallholder farmers, who tend to apply more of insecticides than other pesticides such as fungicides and herbicides. The findings in the current study are similar to the findings by Ngowi et al. (2007), who indicated that insecticide use among other pesticides dominated among smallholder vegetable farmers in Northern Tanzania. Similar findings have been reported by Matowo et al. (2020), who indicated more dominant use of lambda-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin and imidacloprid than fungicides and herbicides in rural Tanzania. On the contrary, Okonya et al. (2015), reported a higher utilization of fungicides (72%) among smallholder potato farmers compared to insecticides (62%) and herbicides (3%) in Uganda. The consistency of high insecticide use, compared to herbicides among smallholder farmer in Central Zambia and other developing countries within the sub-Saharan region, can be attributed to the small parcels of land (<5ha) used in their crop production. Smallholder farmers face more insect-pest pressure than weed control, explaining the low use of herbicides compared to insecticides. Notable among the insecticide residues observed, are the alarming levels of chlorpyrifos that exceed risk-based thresholds in the fields of some smallholder farms.

Our results with regards to chlorpyrifos presence in top soils, are similar to several studies that have been conducted in China (Zhu et al., 2014; Tudi et al., 2023). Studies across China have consistently demonstrated the widespread detection of chlorpyrifos in both aquatic and agricultural environments. In marine ecosystems, Zhong et al. (2015) reported chlorpyrifos residues in more than 60% of 72 sediment samples from the Bohai and Yellow Seas, while Chen et al. (2020) found that chlorpyrifos had the highest mean concentrations among pesticides in Shanghai’s aquatic systems, contributing over 50% of the total toxic units. Agricultural soils show similar contamination patterns: Pan et al. (2019) observed ecological risks in northern China farmland, with more than 1% of samples exceeding 0.1 mg/kg; Fu et al. (2020) detected chlorpyrifos in 93.3% of soil samples when assessing 201 pesticide residues; and Han et al. (2017) found chlorpyrifos in 5.3% of nut-cultivated soils across seven provinces, with residue levels ranging from 7.2 to 77.2 μg/kg. Field-specific investigations, such as Wang et al. (2019) in sugarcane soils of Changsha and Danzhou, revealed rapid degradation, with residues declining by over 98% within 35 days and a half-life of approximately 6 days, suggesting limited long-term persistence in that context. Collectively, these findings highlight chlorpyrifos as a pervasive contaminant across diverse ecosystems in China, with concentrations varying by environment and crop type, raising significant ecological concerns despite evidence of rapid breakdown under certain field conditions. The pattern observed in China, reflects findings in Vietnam where reports of chlorpyrifos residues exceeding recommended limits, have been documented (Thuy et al., 2012).

The amount of chlorpyrifos residues detected in most of the studies cited above from China, are far less than the levels detected in some of the smallholder farms in the current study. The dominance of chlorpyrifos in smallholder and emergent farming systems in Central Zambia underscores the reliance of resource-constrained farmers on broad-spectrum, low-cost insecticides. This pattern mirrors findings in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where organophosphates remain prevalent due to affordability and immediate pest knockdown effects (FAO, 2020). Globally, smallholder reliance on highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) has been associated with elevated ecological risks, including soil biodiversity loss and contamination of water bodies (Kowalska et al., 2018). The Zambian context aligns with this trend, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions such as farmer education, stricter market regulation, and promotion of safer alternatives.

The persistence of extreme chlorpyrifos residues in smallholder fields reflects not only economic reliance on low-cost organophosphates but also a self-reinforcing ecological feedback loop. Repeated applications of broad-spectrum insecticides progressively erode on-farm biodiversity, particularly natural enemies such as parasitoids and predatory arthropods, which ordinary suppress pest populations. As highlighted by Wan et al. (2024), biodiversity loss in agroecosystems triggers cascading social-ecological costs, diminishing biological control intensifies pest outbreaks, compelling farmers to escalate chemical dosages in subsequent seasons. This cycle entrenches chemical dependency, amplifies ecological risk, and accelerates soil and water contamination. In the Zambian context, smallholder farmers cultivating parcels below 5 ha face disproportionate insect-pest pressure, and the absence of functional biodiversity magnifies vulnerability to pest resurgence. Consequently, organophosphate overuse becomes both a symptom and a driver of biodiversity decline, locking farmers into a trajectory of escalating pesticide reliance. The observed dominance of chlorpyriphos residues thus signals more than a contamination issue, it illustrates how ecological simplification undermines resilience, perpetuating hazardous pesticide use, and jeopardizes long-term sustainability of smallholder farming systems. Addressing this cycle requires interventions that restore biodiversity functions such as intercropping and polyculture alongside regulatory and educational measures to reduce dependence on highly hazardous pesticides.

4.2 Emergent/mixed farming and diversification of pesticide use

Emergent farming landscapes indicated a shift toward diversified pesticide use, with cypermethrin and fomesafen becoming more prominent. Comparable findings have been reported in Kenya (Constantine et al., 2020) and Ethiopia (Teklewold et al., 2013), where medium-scale farms increasingly integrate pyrethroids and selective herbicides into their management practices. Similarly, Riwthong et al. (2015), observed that as smallholder farms are transitioning into commercial farms, the change is usually accompanied by an increase in agricultural productivity. Furthermore, their study showed a reduction in the use of traditional methods and an increase in the use of synthetic pesticides in pest management among these farmers. Besides, the transitional/emergent farmers tend to use a large number of pesticide products and mix them together in a bid to effectively control pests. The diversified pesticide uses among emergent farmers in Central Zambia, is reflective of the transitional stage where farmers adopt more specialized chemicals to manage diverse pest and weed pressures.

The relatively consistent application patterns observed in emergent farming systems suggest emerging awareness of application protocols, though variability remains. This echoes studies in Latin America, where medium-scale farms demonstrate improved pesticide handling compared to smallholders but still face challenges in dosage regulation and protective equipment use (Brisbois, 2016).

4.3 Commercial farming and herbicide intensification

Commercial farms in Central Zambia present a markedly different profile, characterized by lower insecticide residues but elevated herbicide concentrations, particularly acifluorfen, fomesafen, and glyphosate. This reflects the global trend of large-scale farms prioritizing weed control through herbicide-intensive strategies (Das et al., 2024). Furthermore, the present findings correspond with those of Karpinski et al. (2026), who reported that many commercial farmers in Germany remain reluctant to adopt strategies aimed at reducing herbicide use due to perceived low economic efficiency. Given that most commercial farms in both districts operate on arable lands exceeding 100 ha, reliance on chemical weed-control methods continues to be favoured over alternative approaches considered less cost-effective.

The widespread use of glyphosate among other herbicides was also observed in the study by Malambo et al. (2019) across 7 provinces of Zambia. Among the herbicides considered in our study, residues of glyphosate and its primary metabolite (AMPA) were higher compared to the residues of other herbicides. These findings are similar to the findings by Silva et al. (2017), who detected glyphosate and its primary metabolite, in 45 percent of 317 topsoil samples collected from ten European countries. Comparable patterns emerge between the two studies, particularly regarding the high frequency and elevated concentrations of AMPA relative to glyphosate across diverse farming landscapes. This consistency among commercial farms suggests prolonged and intensive glyphosate application for weed control. Similarly, in Brazil and Argentina, glyphosate-based herbicides dominate commercial agriculture, with residues frequently detected in soils and water systems (Benbrook, 2016). The uneven contamination profiles, reflected in high skewness values, suggest that while some commercial farms adopt integrated pest management (IPM), others remain heavily dependent on chemical inputs. This variability is consistent with findings from China, where pesticide use among commercial farms varied widely depending on crop type, market access, and regulatory oversight (Pan et al., 2019). Similar heterogeneity has been reported in Argentina by Aparicio et al. (2013) and Primost et al. (2017), in the differential glyphosate residues across farming landscapes.

Commercial farms in Central Zambia, dominated herbicides, exemplify herbicide-intensive management that prioritizes weed control over ecological sustainability. Long-term reliance on glyphosate suppresses wild plant cover, reducing field-scale diversity and weakening biodiversity-mediated pest regulation. As noted in Wan et al. (2024), such biodiversity loss diminishes natural pest suppression and reinforces chemical dependency. Similar outcomes have been documented in Brazil and Argentina, where glyphosate-based monocultures homogenize landscapes and erode resilience (Bøhn and Millstone, 2019). Within Zambia, the dominance of glyphosate and AMPA residues mirrors these global patterns, with uneven contamination profiles suggesting partial but limited adoption of integrated pest management. Collectively, these findings highlight how commercial farms, operating on extensive arable lands, remain locked into herbicide-intensive regimes that degrade biodiversity functions, aligning Zambia’s commercial agriculture with global monoculture trends and underscoring the need for strategies that restore ecological resilience.

4.4 Accessibility and market dynamics

Our study highlights how pesticide accessibility shapes contamination patterns across farming systems. A good example is the price and packaging dynamics of some pesticides such as chlorpyrifos and acifluorfen. Usually, chlorpyrifos is packaged in small containers (≥50 mL) sold at approximately $1 while acifluorfen is usually packaged in much bigger containers (≥1Ltr) and sold at approximately $25, in the Zambian agrochemical market sector. Chlorpyrifos, sold in small, affordable containers, is heavily used by smallholders, while acifluorfen, available only in larger, costlier packages, is concentrated in commercial farms. The trend of pesticide accessibility being influenced by price and packaging dynamics has been revealed in the study by Williamson et al. (2008) across four different African countries. Similar findings have been reported by Barwant et al. (2025), who indicated price sensitivity and limited availability of sustainable products as part of the major barriers to sustainable pest management. Furthermore, this dynamic is echoed in Botswana and Zimbabwe, where pesticide packaging size and price strongly influence farmer choices, often leading to disproportionate use of cheaper, more hazardous chemicals (FAO, 2020).

Such market-driven disparities emphasize the need for regulatory frameworks that not only restrict highly hazardous pesticides (HHPs) but also promote equitable access to safer alternatives. Subsidies for biopesticides or integrated pest management tools could reduce reliance on hazardous chemicals among smallholders.

4.5 Ecological and health risks

The concentrations of chlorpyrifos detected in some farms exceed those reported in many previous investigations, where even lower levels have been shown to cause adverse ecological and health effects. For instance, Chen et al. (2020) identified chlorpyrifos as the dominant contributor to aquatic toxicity in Shanghai, at levels lower than those observed in the current study. Its persistence is particularly concerning given its WHO classification as moderately hazardous (Class II) and its global association with pollinator decline, aquatic toxicity, and human health risks such as neurotoxicity.

Evidence further shows that chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin residues trigger cascading ecological damage across multiple trophic levels. As highlighted in Wan et al. (2025b) and Wan et al. (2026b), repeated exposure suppresses soil fauna, disrupts nutrient cycling, and reduces wild pollinator populations, leading to irreversible losses of ecosystem services such as natural pest regulation and soil fertility. Smallholder systems are disproportionately vulnerable due to limited access to modern inputs, extension services, and pollution control technologies. The heavy contamination observed reflects systemic issues including overuse of broad-spectrum pesticides, poor waste management, and lack of farmer training. Similar patterns have been documented across Africa, where smallholders often lack protective equipment and knowledge of safe application practices, increasing exposure risks for farmers and their households (Matowo et al., 2020).

The current study therefore highlights that ecological degradation and human health risks are unevenly distributed across farming systems, with smallholders most at risk. Addressing these challenges requires enhanced monitoring, differentiated interventions, and adoption of sustainable pest management practices to safeguard both ecosystems and public health.

5 Conclusion and recommendation

The findings of this study demonstrate clear differentiation across Zambia’s farming systems. Smallholder farms are mostly associated with high insecticide residues, particularly chlorpyrifos. Emergent farms show elevated levels of both insecticides and herbicides, notably cypermethrin and fomesafen, while commercial farms are dominated by herbicide residues such as acifluorfen, fomesafen, glyphosate, and its metabolite AMPA. These contrasts reflect variations in farming scale and pest management strategies. From an environmental and health perspective, the persistence of chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin in smallholder and emergent systems is concerning due to their toxicity, while the heavy reliance on glyphosate-based herbicides in commercial estates raises issues of ecological degradation and resistance development. To address these risks, differentiated diversification strategies tailored to Zambia’s three farming systems are recommended. For smallholders, intercropping and polyculture can reduce insecticide dependency while enhancing resilience. Emergent mixed farms would benefit from integrated crop-livestock systems that strengthen biodiversity regulation and mitigate dual pesticide loads. For commercial estates, cover crop rotation offers a pathway to reduce herbicide reliance and restore ecological functions. Finally, to quantify the causal pathways linking farming scale, pesticide residue loads, biodiversity decline, and ecosystem service degradation, the construction of a coupled path analysis model is proposed. Such a model would provide a robust framework for evidence-based regulation, farmer training, and the promotion of safer alternatives, thereby balancing agricultural productivity with sustainability and public health protection.

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