Abstract
Orcas exhibit highly specialized behavioral and cognitive adaptations that enable them to hunt large marine prey, including the largest teleosts, the sunfishes (family Molidae). While orca-molid interactions have been documented globally, the specific mechanics of these predatory events vary. Here, we describe two predation events in the Gulf of California in which adult orcas accelerated and struck a sharp-tail sunfish (Masturus lanceolatus) with sufficient force to cause substantial tissue fragmentation. We propose that this ‘ram-to-fragment’ behavior may have multiple functions, including facilitating foraging for juvenile orcas or reflecting play behavior. The observed coordination between adults suggests a high degree of cooperative precision and could represent roles in prey processing, social interaction and learning.
Introduction
Orcas (Orcinus orca), the largest members of the family Delphinidae, are globally distributed apex predators with a diet comprising more than 200 prey species (Hussain, 2024). Most orca predation events have been observed in temperate and subpolar waters. In the Northeastern Pacific, research has focused on three genetically and ecologically distinct lineages: “residents” (fish-eating), “transients” (marine mammal-eating), and “offshores” (specializing in fish and elasmobranchs) (Ford and Ellis, 2006, Dahlheim et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2025). In contrast, the predatory behaviors of orcas in tropical and equatorial waters remain less understood; for example, populations in the Gulf of California do not strictly adhere to the ecotype classifications defined at higher latitudes (Vargas-Bravo et al., 2020).
Orcas are known to engage in both consumptive and non-consumptive interactions with prey, including striking or killing animals without subsequent ingestion. Such behavior has been documented across multiple populations and prey types and is commonly interpreted as play, social interaction, or practice associated with social learning. Cooperative hunting by orcas has been documented for whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) in the Gulf of California, where several individuals held the prey steady while another rammed it (Pancaldi et al., 2024). Orcas also demonstrate cooperative behaviors when herding mobula rays (Mobula munkiana) (Higuera-Rivas et al., 2023), hunting large baleen whale species (Totterdell et al., 2022; Pitman et al., 2023), blocking the escape path of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) (Towner et al., 2022), and collectively producing waves to dislodge pinnipeds and penguins from floating ice (Visser et al., 2008; Pitman and Durban, 2012).
The Gulf of California supports a high level of biodiversity due to the convergence of warm and cold ocean currents that generate nutrient-rich conditions capable of sustaining abundant megafauna populations (Lavín and Marinone, 2003). Overall, orcas in the region exhibit ‘generalist’ feeding habits, though specific pods display high degrees of specialization for hunting elasmobranchs (Higuera-Rivas et al., 2023; Ayres et al., 2024; Pancaldi et al., 2024; Higuera-Rivas et al., 2025), cetaceans (Guerrero-Ruiz et al., 2007; Pitman et al., 2023), sea turtles (Guerrero-Ruiz et al., 2007) and teleost fish (Ortega-Ortiz et al., 2023). The sunfishes represent the most frequently observed teleost prey for orcas in this region (Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2025), although other teleost prey species have included yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) (Ortega-Ortiz et al., 2023).
The sunfishes, also known as molids, are the largest teleost fish family. Three of the five existing species have been sighted in the Gulf of California, including the ocean sunfish (Mola mola), the giant sunfish (Mola alexandrini), and the sharp-tail sunfish (Masturus lanceolatus) (Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2025). Little is known of their local ecology in the Gulf of California, compared to regions where their migratory patterns and cleaning station associations are well studied (Thys et al., 2017). Molids primarily consume gelatinous plankton and move through a broad range of depths, often basking in surface waters where they rest, thermoregulate, and seek parasite removal (Cartamil and Lowe, 2004; Abe and Sekiguchi, 2012). This surface-oriented behavior increases their vulnerability to orca predation and orca-molid interactions have been documented throughout several localities globally, with the majority occurring in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, particularly in the Gulf of California (Visser et al., 2023).
Orcas have demonstrated specific strategies when hunting molids and these have been previously described as follows: (1) the orca first targets the molid pectoral fins, (2) a wound is created for the removal of lipid-rich viscera (3) the orca then inserts its rostrum into the body cavity of the molid to extract remaining tissue (Visser and Fletcher, 2023). While recent reports have noted orcas using force to detach flesh (Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2025), here we document a more detailed iteration of this behavior. Our observations describe these events and explore the potential social implications of this high-energy foraging tactic.
Method
This study draws on opportunistic observations from two events of orca predation of sharp-tail sunfish (Masturus lanceolatus) in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico. The first event was filmed directly in the field by one of the authors using a GoPro Hero 10, while the second event was documented using footage provided by a third party, recorded with a DJI Osmo Action 5 camera. In this study a ‘ram-to-fragment’ behavior refers to an interaction in which one orca secures the sunfish while another individual orca approaches at speed and forcefully collides with the prey, producing visible tissue fragmentation throughout the water column. Both video sequences were systematically reviewed to reconstruct the behavioral progression of the predator–prey interactions. Analyses included the estimated number and relative size class of the orcas involved, with individuals classified as adults or juveniles according to comparative body size. Attention was also given to body orientation and positioning during the interaction and the sequence of prey-handling behaviors such as restraint, impact, release, and feeding.
Results
Event 1
On the 29th of July 2024 at midday at an offshore seamount off the coast from San Jose del Cabo, Baja California Sur, Mexico (22°53.526’N 109° 28.847’W, Figure 1), a group of orcas (3 adult females, a male, and a juvenile) was sighted by a tourism operator. The successful capture and consumption of a spine-tail devil ray (Mobula mobular) by the orcas was recorded using a drone (DJI Mini 3). A post-predation orca-molid event was then subsequently recorded in-water (Video 1, Supplementary Material). An adult female orca held the carcass of a sharp-tail sunfish by the clavus in her mouth (Figure 2A). Although the primary body of the sunfish remained intact, a large lateral wound indicated that the viscera had already been removed. An adult male orca then accelerated ventral side up at high speed towards the molid. The female orca released the prey prior to impact (Figure 2B). The high-velocity ‘ramming’ produced a loud audible sound and caused fragmentation of the sunfish tissue, which dispersed throughout the water column (Figures 2C, D). Following the impact, a juvenile orca, estimated to be between 50% to 75% of the size of the adult female’s length (Visser, 1999), began consuming the smaller suspended fragments (Figures 2E, F). The split-open body of the molid was still intact, which both adult orcas fed on as the young orca continued to feed on the smaller fragments. The adult orcas were not observed consuming the smaller fragments.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Event 2
On the 7th of September 2025 at 13:20 in the channel of Isla Cerralvo, Gulf of California, Mexico (24°11’48.4”N 110°01’07.8”W, Figure 1), three adult female orcas and a calf were sighted by a tourism operator. The behavior witnessed (Video 2, Supplementary Material) is consistent with that described in Event 1: one adult orca stabilized a sharp-tail sunfish (Figure 3A) while a second orca executed a high-speed ramming maneuver, in a dorsal-up orientation (Figure 3B). Post-impact, the ramming individual transitions to a ventral-up position (Figures 3C–E). The impact results in fragmentation of the prey tissue (Figure 3F). A third adult orca then joins the interaction, and both individuals bite into the remaining portion of the split-open molid. The individual that initially stabilized the prey is subsequently observed swimming through the fragments and manipulating them with its mouth. Additionally, the calf is documented extracting tissue from the primary carcass. Notably, the same orcas had been observed preying on a shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) earlier that day.
Figure 3
Discussion
Our observations suggest a potentially coordinated and cooperative foraging strategy in which orcas employ high-speed ramming maneuvers that result in fragmentation of molid prey tissue. Orca-molid interactions have been reviewed globally (Visser et al. 2023) and regionally (Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2025). Previous ramming behavior was described as: ‘the impact caused several pieces of flesh to detach’. The fragmentation observed in the events we describe suggests that high-impact ramming causes substantial disintegration of the prey tissue, representing a previously undescribed behavior within the known ethology of orcas (Orcinus orca). This pronounced fragmentation has not been reported in other molid species, suggesting it may reflect a species-specific structural response of sharp-tail sunfish (Masturus lanceolatus) tissue to high-energy impacts. The clavus of the sharp-tail sunfish is more pronounced than in other molid species (Sawai et al., 2020) and may provide an effective point of grip for orcas during ramming behavior.
The ‘ram-to-fragment’ strategy observed could be interpreted as a form of parental investment. In Event 1, adults fragmented the carcass into smaller, potentially more manageable pieces for the juvenile present, while continuing to target the primary remains. This pattern is consistent with facilitation feeding for younger individuals, although additional, non-exclusive functions are also possible. Fragmentation may contribute to prey processing, social interaction and play, or the distribution of resources among all group members. The observed ‘stabilize-and-ram’ coordination between two adults further indicates a high degree of cooperative precision. The nature of this event is reminiscent of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) predation in the Gulf of California, where orcas work in tandem to immobilize and extract high-energy tissues (Pancaldi et al., 2024). Precision and selective foraging is also well-documented in other orca populations, such as the preference for lipid-rich Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Pacific Northwest (Ford and Ellis, 2006, Lerner and Hunt, 2023) and precision removal of livers in white sharks (Engelbrecht et al., 2019; Towner et al., 2022, 2024, Higuera-Rivas et al., 2025).
Molids were previously considered docile and poor swimmers yet have been shown to possess strong swimming capabilities (Watanabe and Davenport, 2021). They exhibit highly migratory behavior (Sims et al., 2009) and display rapid evasive responses during orca predation (Nyegaard et al., 2023). The targeted sharp-tail sunfish in these events were already deceased with viscera removed at the time of ramming, suggesting that this behavior is a processing technique to fragment tissue rather than to deliver a killing blow. Molids possess a thick, gelatinous collagen layer called the ‘capsule’ composed of nearly 90% water (Davenport et al., 2018). The capsule and outer integument of molids host distinct microbial taxa, and their dispersal into the water column during fragmentation may influence the local microbiome through the redistribution of nutrients. Microbial exchange between hosts and the environment is a dynamic process across trophic levels, with predator–prey transfer increasingly recognized (Dion-Phénix et al., 2021). Tissue fragmentation could therefore facilitate contact with the prey’s microbiome, mycobiome, and virome (Thys et al., 2022), which may provide nutritional or functional benefits.
Orcas (Orcinus orca) exhibit a spectrum of foraging strategies, ranging from generalist feeding behavior to high degrees of specialization on specific prey taxa. In Event 1, the observed orca group preyed on a spine-tail devil ray prior to the molid interaction, demonstrating the consumption of both teleost and cartilaginous fishes. This pattern aligns with observations from Event 2, in which the observed orca group was recorded feeding on a shortfin mako shark earlier the same day. Molids are also consumed by orcas in other regions where populations primarily feed on marine mammals (Visser et al., 2023), suggesting that molids may represent an opportunistic supplementary prey item in their diet. Supporting this, a recent study in the Gulf of California documented 21 orca–molid predation events involving 17 photo-identified individual orcas and suggested that at least four distinct orca groups include molids in their diet (Rosales-Nanduca et al., 2025). It was not possible to determine whether the same orca individuals were involved in both events we describe, as high-resolution top-side images were not collected across both encounters. This emphasizes the importance of obtaining high-quality dorsal fin and eye patch imagery to enable individual and pod identification and to better characterize feeding behavior. Continued photo-identification efforts in the Mexican Pacific and Gulf of California will help clarify the degree of dietary specialization among pods.
Citizen-generated data and documentation of predation events provide valuable insights into cetacean behavior. Many previously described orca-molid interactions have relied on opportunistic observations from platforms such as YouTube, Instagram, and Facebook (Visser et al., 2023; Visser and Fletcher, 2023). While increased tourism and accessible technologies (e.g., drones and underwater cameras) have expanded opportunities for behavioral observation, they also introduce potential bias. It remains difficult to determine whether increased sightings reflect a true rise in predation events or simply greater observation effort (“more eyes on the water”). The rapid growth of wildlife tourism also raises concerns about disturbance to animals, prompting the recent release of a management plan intended to regulate swimming with orcas in the Gulf of California (SEMARNAT, 2025). If such activities continue under appropriate management, collaboration between scientists and tour operators can offer valuable opportunities to record rare sightings and behaviors that would otherwise remain undocumented.
Our observations expand the known repertoire of orca predatory strategies on molids and suggest a complex, potentially socially learned behavior that may serve both foraging and parental functions. Further documentation and analysis of predation events with molids will provide deeper insight into the ecological and evolutionary significance of such strategies in orca populations. The question of ‘high-impact fragmentation’ as a unique strategy for sharp-tail sunfish prey or a broader strategy remains to be determined.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Ethics statement
Ethical approval was not required for the study involving animals in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements because Observations from Event 1 were collected opportunistically during authorized marine wildlife tourism activities conducted under permits held by the vessel operator in accordance with Mexican regulations. The tour guide on board was federally certified under NOM-09-TUR-2002 standards. All interactions were non-invasive and conducted with minimal disturbance to the animals. Event 2 observations were collected from an uploaded social media video.
Author contributions
KA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. AG: Writing – review & editing. CA: Writing – original draft. CD: Writing – review & editing. JH: Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
Acknowledgments
We thank Héctor Franz for providing the video from Event 2 and the reviewer for their edits.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The author AG declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Correction note
This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the scientific content of the article.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fetho.2026.1835536/full#supplementary-material
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Summary
Keywords
behavior, killer whale, orca, parental investment, predation, sunfish
Citation
Ayres KA, Gallagher AJ, Avena CV, Duarte CM and Higuera Rivas JE (2026) Fragmentation of sharp-tail sunfish (Masturus lanceolatus) caused by high-impact ramming behavior in orcas (Orcinus orca). Front. Ethol. 5:1835536. doi: 10.3389/fetho.2026.1835536
Received
21 March 2026
Revised
20 May 2026
Accepted
28 May 2026
Published
23 July 2026
Corrected
23 July 2026
Volume
5 - 2026
Edited by
Stephanie Ann Poindexter, University at Buffalo, United States
Reviewed by
Madalena Cabral, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Mexico
Laura Ekstrom, Wheaton College Massachusetts, United States
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Ayres, Gallagher, Avena, Duarte and Higuera Rivas.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Kathryn A. Ayres, katy@beneaththewaves.org
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.