Forest management as an important ecological indicator produces a considerable influence on plant species diversity (Ćosović et al., 2020; Haq et al., 2024a,b). Understanding how different forest management approaches affect plant species diversity is essential for achieving ecologically sustainable forest management (Oettel and Lapin, 2021). However, majority of the forest clearing already takes place in subtropical forests, and future deforestation is predicted to be concentrated in the tropics (Wright, 2010). To maintain biodiversity, wise and rigorous forestry management practices are urgently required to address diversity loss and the resultant degradation of ecosystem performance (Shin et al., 2022). Reforestation activities are supported all across the Earth to accommodate the expanding requirement for forest products, particularly in developing countries (Haq et al., 2023a,b). Subtropical forests thus encourage the preservation of forest cover in the region, as well as the development of ecosystem services that support local populations’ livelihoods (Borma et al., 2022). Understanding vegetation dynamics and ecological aspects is crucial in managed forests, where human activity influences vegetation composition and structure (Ivanova et al., 2022).

The composition of vegetation within managed forests is influenced by a myriad of factors, ranging from climatic conditions and soil characteristics to human activities such as silvicultural practices and land management (Ameray et al., 2021). Different tree species have varying growth rates, competitive abilities, and interactions with understory vegetation, resulting in distinct ecological traits that influence ecosystem dynamics (Balandier et al., 2022). The success of these plantations is measured not only in terms of economic productivity but also in terms of their ability to maintain or enhance ecological integrity (Karr et al., 2022). For instance, fast-growing pioneer species may establish dominance in early successional stages, altering nutrient cycling and microclimate conditions (Poorter et al., 2021). On the other hand, slower-growing, shade-tolerant species may shape the later successional stages, influencing habitat complexity and biodiversity (Khoja et al., 2022; Forrester et al., 2023).

In subtropical regions, the subtleties of climatic variability, including seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation, further complicate the dynamics of managed forests (Devi et al., 2023). Consequently, different plantation types may display varying responses to these climatic fluctuations, which can subsequently influence the interactions between plantation species and native vegetation (Liu et al., 2023). Furthermore, the establishment of plantations may involve the removal of native vegetation or alteration of natural hydrological regimes, potentially leading modulations in soil characteristics, water availability, and nutrient flux (Zhou et al., 2020). Such modifications can have cascading impacts on the overarching ecosystem structure and function, necessitating a thorough understanding of how vegetation composition and ecological traits interact within these managed landscapes (Brown et al., 2023). Furthermore, the impacts of different plantation types extend beyond the vegetation composition alone. They encompass a spectrum of ecological processes that influence nutrient cycling, water availability, microclimate conditions, and habitat suitability (Piotto et al., 2021). Native species may respond differently to these alterations, potentially leading to shifts in community structure and diversity (Williams and Newbold, 2020).

The implications of these changes extend to various trophic levels, affecting wildlife habitat, pollinator interactions, and overall ecosystem resilience (Murphy et al., 2020; Theodorou, 2022). Therefore, evaluating the sustainability and multifunctionality of managed forests in subtropical temperatures necessitates a thorough examination of the complex connections between vegetation composition, ecological traits, and ecosystem processes. Remedying this scholarly gap, our investigation was undertaken. in the Chichawatni subtropical managed forests with the specific objectives (1) assessing vegetation composition, growth forms, life span, phenology, nativity, and taxonomic groups of major forest types in the region, (2) exploring conceivable variances in diversity and Spatial arrangements across these forests, (iii) how do anthropogenic factors influence the diversity patterns of vegetation composition and communities assemblage in different forest types? The results would directly affect management plans and decision-making procedures to improve cooperative effectiveness in achieving global goals for preserving biodiversity. Moreover, conservation strategies targeted at the species level played a pivotal role in enhancing the resilience and sustainability of ecosystems.

Vegetation structural complexity as an essential ecological characteristic referred to the three-dimensional distribution of plants within an ecosystem (LaRue et al., 2023). One certainty in the modern anthropogenic epoch biological communities exhibited dynamic instability and underwent fluctuations over both short and long temporal scales (Smith et al., 2009). Predicting the effects of ongoing habitat and biodiversity declined on ecosystem functions and services required an understanding of the role diversity plays in ecosystem stability (Dolezal et al., 2020). One of the primary objectives of the study was to assess the biodiversity and ecological traits of plant species within the Chichawatni forest plantation. The results revealed a remarkable diversity of angiosperm species, with 173 species belonging to 42 different families. This high diversity is a testament to the unique ecological conditions prevailing in the subtropical region of the India–Pakistan subcontinent. The dominance of the Poaceae family, with 25 species, is noteworthy. This family’s prevalence is indicative of the ecological importance of grasses in subtropical ecosystems, which often play vital roles in soil stabilization, nutrient cycling, and as habitat for various wildlife (Altaf et al., 2022; Waheed et al., 2022a,b, 2023a; de Oliveira et al., 2023; Joshi et al., 2023). Other prominent families, such as Fabaceae, Asteraceae, and Amaranthaceae, also contributed significantly to the overall species count. Comparable findings were documented by Arshad et al. (2023) and Waheed et al. (2023a,b) from the subtropical region of Pakistan. Fabaceae was recorded as the dominant family by Haq et al. (2023a,b) from Shawilks Mountain Range, Western Himalayas, while Mehraj et al. (2018) recorded Asteraceae as the dominant family from Himalayas. The research insights of Haq et al. (2019, 2021) demonstrated the remarkable adaptive capacity of the Asteraceae family across various regions and climates. The abundance of graminoids, forbs, and deciduous tree species, including Dalbergia sissoo and Morus alba, indicated the adaptability of these plants to the region’s distinct climate, characterized by seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation. This diversity mirrored the results of studies in other subtropical forests such as the Western Ghats in India (Subashree et al., 2021) and the Kabal valley, Swat, Pakistan (Ilyas et al., 2018). However, while the number of species is impressive, the uneven distribution across families is a common trend in forest ecosystems globally (Singh et al., 2020). The prevalence of the Poaceae family is consistent with its ubiquitous presence in many forest ecosystems (Behera and Misra, 2006; Joshi et al., 2021).

The presence of therophytes as the dominant life form aligns with the region’s semi-arid climate, where these annual plants have evolved strategies to complete their life cycles within the limited wet period (Moro et al., 2015; Rashid et al., 2021; Manan et al., 2022). Hemicryptophytes, with their capacity to persist through unfavorable conditions, also exhibited a substantial role. These life forms reflected the resilience of plant species in subtropical climates, where they must cope with both dry periods and monsoon rains (Pfadenhauer and Klötzli, 2020). The prevalence of microphyll and mesophyll leaf spectrum types revealed the need for efficient water use in subtropical climates, where water availability could be a limiting factor (Amjad et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2021). Understanding the prevalence of these ecological traits is crucial for predicting how plant communities may respond to future climate fluctuations in the region (Alexander et al., 2018). These traits are crucial for the survival of plant species during extended dry spells and highlighted the adaptability of the Chichawatni forest flora. The identification of two major flowering periods in the Chichawatni Forest is a noteworthy finding, as it showcases the adaptability of plant species to seasonal changes. Such phenological variations are consistent with the findings of studies in other subtropical and temperate forests, where species exhibited distinct flowering periods in response to local climatic conditions (Pei et al., 2015; Du et al., 2019; Song et al., 2021). However, the study also reported flowering during the winter months, a phenomenon observed less frequently in subtropical forests but documented in temperate ecosystems (Negi et al., 2022). This suggests that the Chichawatni Forest may be subjected to unique climatic influences, further highlighting the subtropical region’s ecological complexity.

The study indicated the variations in plant richness and diversity metrics across various plantation types within the forest. Such variations in diversity are common in managed forests globally (Goded et al., 2019; Poudyal et al., 2019). The higher diversity observed in Dalbergia sissoo and Populus nigra plantations were aligned with findings in various plantation studies, where the species-rich plantations tended to support a more diverse range of understory species (Ramovs and Roberts, 2003; Bremer and Farley, 2010). Conversely, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Morus alba plantations exhibited lower diversity, a pattern often associated with Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations (Alem and Pavlis, 2012; Bekele and Abebe, 2018). The findings underscored the importance of considering plantation type in forest management decisions to promote biodiversity (Liu et al., 2019; Blondeel et al., 2021). Such finding implied that particular tree species exerted a more favorable impact on the diversity of the understory vegetation. The outcomes aligned with prior research had shown the importance of tree species selection in plantation design (Barlow et al., 2007). The significance of plantation type was extended beyond species richness and diversity. The study also unraveled varying levels of evenness and dominance within different plantation types. The Dalbergia sissoo plantation displayed the highest evenness, indicating a more balanced distribution of species, while the mixed trees plantation had the lowest evenness, suggesting that certain species dominated the plantation. Understanding such patterns of evenness and dominance could have practical implications for forest managers. For instance, enhancing evenness within plantations could contribute more stable and resilient ecosystems, less susceptible to the dominance of a few species (Sanderson et al., 2004). The findings had direct implications for forest management strategies in subtropical regions like India and Pakistan. Sustainable forestry practices should consider not only the economic value of timber but also the ecological consequences of tree species selection. The positive relationship between certain plantation types and higher biodiversity suggested that careful species selection could promote both economic goals and the preservation of native biodiversity.

The nMDS ordination results offer compelling evidence of distinct dissimilarity patterns among different plantation types within the Chichawatni forest. The analysis involved data collected from 173 plant species sampled across various plantation types, namely the Populus nigra plantation (PNP), Dalbergia sissoo plantation (DSP), Morus alba plantation (MAP), Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantation (ECP), and mix trees plantation (MTP). The nMDS plot visually represented these dissimilarity patterns by placing groups of plant communities closer or farther apart based on their similarity in species composition (Clarke et al., 2006). Conversely, groups situated far apart or on different axes display a negative correlation, indicating greater dissimilarity in species composition. The dissimilarity patterns revealed by the nMDS analysis were not just abstract representations but carried significant ecological implications (Legendre and Anderson, 1999). The patterns highlighted the varying ecological dynamics and species compositions among different plantation types, which were influenced by factors such as tree species selection, silvicultural practices, and disturbance regimes (Paillet et al., 2010). For example, the proximity of the Dalbergia sissoo plantation (DSP) and Populus nigra plantation (PNP) groups in the nMDS plot suggested a higher degree of similarity in species composition between these two plantation types. Such observation aligned with the previously discussed findings of higher species richness and diversity indices in such plantations (Wang et al., 2019). It indicated that certain species within these plantations might share ecological niches or exhibited similar responses to environmental conditions, leading to a more homogeneous plant community (Hamann and Wang, 2006). Conversely, the Morus alba plantation (MAP) and mix trees plantation (MTP) groups appeared farther apart in the nMDS plot, indicating greater dissimilarity in species composition. Such divergence revealed the distinct ecological dynamics within the plantation types. Factors such as tree growth patterns, competitive interactions, and responses to disturbances might contribute to the dissimilarities (Lloret et al., 2011). Understanding differences is crucial for tailoring management strategies that promote both economic objectives and ecological health (Moldan et al., 2012). The PERMANOVA analysis showed significant plant composition differences between plantation types. Notable dissimilarities were identified between the Populus nigra plantation (PNP) and the Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantation (ECP) compared to the Morus alba plantation (MAP) and the mixed tree plantation (MTP). This emphasizes the crucial significance of individual species in generating different plant communities across various plantation types (Waheed et al., 2020, 2022b; Haq et al., 2023a).

The indicator species identified played critical ecological roles within their respective plantation types in the subtropical forest. The reported species possessed specific ecological traits that made them well-suited to their environments, and understanding their traits enhanced our comprehension of the broader ecosystem dynamics (Dufrêne and Legendre, 1997). For instance, in the Populus nigra plantation, species like Dicliptera bupleuroides and Xanthium strumarium, characterized by high indicator values, are often associated with open habitats and pioneer vegetation. Those might serve as early colonizers, contributing to the initial stages of ecological succession (McLane et al., 2012). Bombax ceiba, a prominent indicator species, was a deciduous tree known for its ability to tolerate seasonal water fluctuations, potentially influencing the hydrological regime of the plantation (Maiti et al., 2021). Capsella bursa-pastoris, a common indicator, as an annual herb thrived in disturbed areas, reflecting the ecological conditions within the Populus nigra plantation (Petersen et al., 2021). In the Dalbergia sissoo plantation (DSP), indicator species like Acacia farnesiana and Chenopodium album were often associated with arid and semi-arid regions (Waheed et al., 2023a,b), reflecting the specific moisture and soil conditions of the DSP. Broussonetia papyrifera, another DSP indicator, was valued for its role in stabilizing soils and providing shade, highlighting its importance in shaping the microenvironment (Agyeman et al., 2016). Xanthium strumarium, shared with the PNP, was an adaptive species with broad ecological tolerance, indicative of its capacity to thrive in different environments (Ullah et al., 2022). In the Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantation (ECP), species like Acacia nilotica and Lantana camara, identified as indicators, often found in disturbed areas and were known for their allelopathic effects, which could influence plant interactions (Zhou et al., 2019).

The species might be significantly involved in shaping the competitive dynamics and understory composition. Neltuma juliflora, another indicator, was adapted to arid environments, reflecting the specific ecological conditions of the ECP. Understanding these ecological traits of indicator species provides insights into the interactions and processes shaping the Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantation (ECP) (Dondofema et al., 2023). In the Morus alba plantation (MAP) and mix trees plantation (MTP), indicator species viz.; Cannabis sativa and Cirsium arvense were often associated with ruderal habitats and might thrive in areas subjected to disturbances like fire and grazing (Vakhlamova et al., 2022). Lantana camara, shared with the ECP, was known for its invasive potential, influencing plant community composition. Understanding these ecological roles is essential for managing the dynamics of these plantation types and addressing issues related to disturbance and invasiveness (Meyer et al., 2021; Haq et al., 2022; Rai, 2022).

The Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) elucidates the significant influence of factors like road accessibility, stem cutting, and fire on plant distribution patterns within various plantation types, aligned with a broad body of literature documenting the impacts of disturbance on vegetation and species composition in managed and natural forest ecosystems (Haq et al., 2019; Kutnar et al., 2019; Alam et al., 2023). Understanding such impacts was vital for informed forest management and conservation strategies (Haq et al., 2021). The impact of anthropogenic disturbances, such as road accessibility, stem cutting, and fire, on plant distribution patterns reaffirmed their significance in shaping forest ecosystems. Those findings held significant implications for forest management and conservation strategies in subtropical regions, emphasizing the necessity for sustainable practices aimed at alleviating the adverse effects of disturbances while promoting biodiversity. Future research in the Chichawatni Forest and similar subtropical ecosystems should focus on long-term monitoring to assess the resilience of plant communities for ongoing environmental changes and disturbances. Road accessibility emerged as a significant driver of vegetation change, with road construction fragmenting habitats and potentially facilitating the spread of invasive plants (Ramprasad et al., 2020). Stem cutting, often associated with resource extraction, had discernible impacts on specific sites within the plantation, highlighting the need for sustainable harvesting practices (Vogel et al., 2021). Fire, another disturbance factor, can disrupt ecosystem processes and negatively affect plant communities (Miller and Safford, 2020). These findings underscore the importance of managing those disturbances carefully to maintain the ecological integrity of managed forest ecosystems.

The Chichawatni forest plantation serves as a microcosm of subtropical managed forests in the broader India-Pakistan region. These forests are invaluable not only for timber production but also for their role in regulating water resources, conserving biodiversity, and providing ecosystem services to local communities (Ghafoor et al., 2022). As such, the results of the present investigation inferred regional significance. Such findings regionally provided valuable insights into how plantation design, ecological traits, and disturbances intersect in subtropical ecosystems. The study’s results had implications for conservation and forest management in the subtropical region. Forest managers could use the insights gained to inform tree species selection and plantation design, aiming for a balance between economic productivity and ecological health. Conservation efforts could be significant from a better understanding of how subtropical ecosystems respond to human activities and climate change, facilitating the preservation of these vital ecosystems (Haq et al., 2024a,b). The research provided a comprehensive understanding of the intricate relationships between biodiversity, ecological traits, plantation types, and disturbances in a subtropical managed forest in the region. The findings contributed to our knowledge of subtropical ecosystems and offered practical guidance for sustainable forest management and conservation in the ecologically diverse and economically significant area.

The present study provides valuable insights into the intricate relationships between vegetation composition, ecological traits, plantation types, and disturbances within the Chichawatni forest plantation, a subtropical managed forest type. The Chichawatni forest is enriched with a diverse floral composition comprising of 173 angiosperm species from 42 families. Such diversity reflected the region’s subtropical climate, fertile terrain, and varied ecological niches. The prevalence of therophytes, deciduous trees, and specific leaf spectrum types underscored the adaptability of plant species to the region’s seasonal variations. Different plantation types within the forest exhibited varying impacts on biodiversity and vegetation composition. Notably, Dalbergia sissoo and Populus nigra plantations displayed higher species richness and diversity indices, highlighting the role of plantation type in shaping ecological dynamics. Those findings had important implications for sustainable forest management practices tailored to specific plantation types. Disturbances, such as road accessibility, stem cutting, and fire, significantly influenced plant distribution patterns within the forest. Road construction could fragment habitats, stem cutting impacted certain sites, and fire could disrupt ecosystem processes. Understanding the impacts of those disturbances was critical for effective forest conservation and management. The study’s findings aligned with broader ecological patterns observed from the subtropical region. Subtropical ecosystems from the area were characterized by unique climatic conditions and rich biodiversity. The study contributed to the understanding of how subtropical forests responded to various ecological factors, providing insights that could monitor and create conservation and management strategies for the ecologically diverse region. Forest managers, policymakers, and conservationists in the subtropical region could be benefited from the study’s insights. Tailoring forest management approaches to different plantation types, considering ecological traits and responses to disturbances, also helped to strike a balance between economic interests and ecological health in managed forests.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

MW: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SH: Data curation, Project administration, Validation, Writing – review & editing. FA: Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. RB: Project administration, Writing – review & editing. AH: Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. EFA: Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing.