Abstract
Polarization is a fundamental characteristic of electromagnetic waves, and the dynamic manipulation of wave polarization has attracted significant attention in both academia and industry. Twisted cascaded metasurfaces have recently emerged as a potential tool for dynamic electromagnetic-wave manipulation owing to their unique advantages, including zero energy consumption and flexible functional integration. An ingenious strategy of rotator design is proposed to achieve linear-to-circular polarization conversion. Building upon the twisted cascaded metasurface concept, arbitrary linear-polarization rotation is realized through the cascading of fundamental meta-atoms, whose polarization responses can be continuously tailored by varying the relative rotation angle between two sub-plates from 0° to 90°. Consequently, a versatile polarization controller is constructed through the integration of these meta-atoms. By integrating the proposed twisted cascaded metasurface with a phase-compensation metasurface (PCM), a polarization-reconfigurable folded reflectarray antenna is developed to achieve arbitrary polarization rotation. The fabricated TCM-FRA can achieve a maximum gain of 25.1 dBi within the operating range of 10–12 GHz, corresponding to a fractional bandwidth of 18.18% and a maximum effective aperture efficiency of 33.13%. The proposed twisted cascaded polarization conversion metasurface enables tailoring the electromagnetic functionalities in mechanical patterns and provides an alternate avenue for reconfigurable metadevices.
1 Introduction
As a fundamental property of electromagnetic waves, polarization plays a critical role in electromagnetic-wave manipulation, and polarization-multiplexing technology holds significant potential for next-generation microwave wireless information encryption and storage systems (Arik et al., 2014; Hema et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2025; Chen et al., 2021). Conventional polarization regulation methods are limited by complex mechanical structures, which confines their wave modulation capabilities. In contrast, emerging metasurfaces, composed of subwavelength scale meta-atoms, have shown great potential abilities to manipulate electromagnetic waves such as frequency, amplitude, phase and also including polarization (Kildishev et al., 2013; Yu and Capasso, 2014; Yu et al., 2011). With ingenious designs, a variety of metasurfaces displaying exotic performance such as beam steering (Sun et al., 2012; Wu et al., 2019), perfect absorption (Landy et al., 2008), metalenses (Wang et al., 2018; Khorasaninejad and Capasso, 2017), cloaking (Yang et al., 2016; N et al., 2015; Qian et al., 2020), and holographic imaging (Zhe et al., 2025; Liao et al., 2025; Chong et al., 2025), have been demonstrated. Polarization holds significant research value, as its manipulation enables high-capacity multiplexing, while polarization-sensitive metasurfaces further allow information transmission through independent channels to distinct targets. According to electromagnetic wave theory, any two orthogonally polarized waves can be combined to generate any polarization state, setting a theoretical limit on the number of independent channels in polarization multiplexing (Bao et al., 2021). To overcome this limitation, engineered-noise-assisted polarization multiplexing has been proposed, enabling metasurfaces with up to 11 independent angular–polarization multiplexing channels (Xiong et al., 2023). Despite the inspiring progress, once the metasurfaces are fabricated, most of the previous metasurface-based polarization controllers render them nonreconfigurable.
With the rapid development of intelligent metasurfaces, the demand for flexible and dynamic manipulation of electromagnetic waves has grown substantially (Cui et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2018; Ding et al., 2025; Gu et al., 2026; Jiang et al., 2026; Qian et al., 2025). Reconfigurable polarization-conversion metasurfaces have evolved from passive structures to active platforms capable of switching among multiple polarization-conversion states. To date, various reconfigurable polarization conversion metasurfaces with multiple functions have been proposed. For example, Lust et al. proposes a reconfigurable linear to circular polarizer based on phase change material Vanadium-Dioxide (VO2) (Lust et al., 2024). PIN diodes have been employed to achieve rapid and real-time switching between linear-to-linear and linear-to-circular polarization conversion states (Tian et al., 2019). Alternatively, liquid crystal provides another possibility to realize reconfigurable linear-to-circular polarization conversion (Doumanis et al., 2014). Besides, through external bias voltage tuning of the electromagnetic response of graphene-based metasurfaces, electrically reconfigurable polarization conversion dynamically transforms linear polarization into elliptical or circular polarization (Song L-Z. et al., 2024). Despite these significant advances, existing approaches still suffer from several limitations, including complex biasing circuits, bulky device architectures, high implementation costs, and restricted tuning ranges resulting from inherently small material-property variations.
Mechanical tuning approaches, including micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), stepper motors, and stretchable substrates, have recently emerged as promising solutions for the dynamic manipulation of electromagnetic waves (Song L-Z. et al., 2024; Deng et al., 2024; Meng et al., 2022; Lor et al., 2026). A variety of mechanical modulation mechanisms have been explored, ranging from kirigami-enabled lattice deformation, axial displacement of cascaded layers, to bistable structural buckling for wave-scattering control (Song Z. et al., 2024; He et al., 2026; Wang et al., 2024). Among these approaches, twisted cascaded metasurfaces have attracted considerable attention as a mechanically reconfigurable platform, offering enhanced design flexibility for reconfigurable metadevices (Cao et al., 2021). By introducing relative rotations between adjacent layers, the moiré effect generates distinct interference patterns, thereby providing additional degrees of freedom for hyperbolic metasurfaces and enabling more versatile control of electromagnetic-wave propagation (Wang et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Luo et al., 2021). Expanding upon these concepts, twisted metasurface-based optical data storage has emerged as a powerful platform, where multiplexed holographic information can be recorded and reconstructed with unprecedented density and redundancy (Fan et al., 2024). Furthermore, twisted dielectric metasurfaces have been demonstrated to achieve on-demand subwavelength focusing through rotational interlayer coupling, enabling dynamic control of both focal position and intensity (He et al., 2025). Despite the substantial progress in twisted metasurfaces, broadband arbitrary linear-polarization manipulation for low-profile folded antenna systems remains largely unexplored.
In this paper, a broadband arbitrary-polarization reconfigurable folded reflectarray antenna based on a twisted cascaded metasurface (TCM) is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. Firstly, a broadband polarization conversion rotator is designed to realize linear-to-circular polarization conversion for the incident linearly waves. By cascading these meta-atoms through rotational-symmetry operations, an arbitrary linear-polarization controller is subsequently realized. By integrating the aforementioned TCM and phase compensation metasurface, which can cover a full 360° phase range to provide continuous phase compensation, a novel polarization reconfigurable reflectarray (FRA) is proposed for manipulating arbitrary polarization rotation. The polarization response can be continuously tailored by varying the relative rotation angle between the two sub-plates from 0° to 90°. The resulting TCM-FRA achieves a maximum gain of 25.1 dBi over the 10–12 GHz frequency range. Featuring low cost and ease of fabrication, the proposed architecture provides a practical strategy for realizing tunable polarization converters and reconfigurable folded reflectarray antennas, offering significant potential for next-generation adaptive electromagnetic systems.
2 Results
The schematic illustration of the broadband arbitrary-polarization reconfigurable folded reflectarray antenna based on twisted cascaded metasurfaces (TCM-FRA) is illustrated in Figure 1. The proposed TCM-FRA enables the conversion of incident electromagnetic waves into arbitrarily polarized waves through mechanical rotation of the upper twisted cascaded metasurface. The upper TCM consists of two polarization rotators, which can convert linear polarization waves into circular polarization waves. On this basis, two LP-to-CP rotators presenting non-mirror symmetry in the propagation direction are assembled to form a tunable polarization rotator, as illustrated on the right side of Figure 1. The polarization of the outgoing waves can be discretionarily regulated through a rotation operation acting on the second rotator. The bottom polarization conversion metasurface (PCM) of the FRA acts as a polarizer and compensates for the phase caused by the path difference with the antenna source. By integrating the TCM and PCM, a reconfigurable folded reflectarray antenna capable of generating arbitrary polarization states is constructed. Consequently, mechanical rotation of the upper metasurface enables dynamic tuning of the antenna radiation polarization state, thereby realizing arbitrary polarization manipulation. Notably, the functional electromagnetic region of the designed metasurface is square-shaped in the schematic, while the fabricated prototype adopts a circular outer contour to facilitate mechanical assembly and rotational adjustment. Simulated results verify that such structural configuration difference introduces negligible influence on the electromagnetic performance of the proposed TCM-FRA.
FIGURE 1
A proof-of-concept linear-to-circular polarization (LTC) rotator operating in the microwave regime is designed. The meta-atom of the LTC rotator is composed of an S-shaped split ring resonator and a parallel metal grating separated by an intermediate dielectric layer as shown in Figure 2a. To optimize the structure parameters of the proposed LTC rotator meta-atom, full wave simulations in commercial software CST are performed with unit boundaries along x- and y-directions. The optimized geometric parameters are: r1 = 3.5, r2 = 2.5, w1 = 1, w2 = 0.2, w3 = 0.2, p = 8, and h1 = 3, in millimeter. The dielectric spacer is implemented using an F4B substrate with a thickness of 3 mm and a relative permittivity of 2.2. The transmission and phase difference spectra for the x-polarized wave incident from the grating side are depicted in Figure 2b. The co-polarized transmission txx of the meta-atom remains above 0.7 across the operating band, while the cross-polarized transmission tyx decreases from 0.7 to 0.3 as the frequency increases. Meanwhile, the transmission phase difference between the two orthogonal components is maintained at around 0.6π. The polarization conversion mechanism of our LTC rotator can be explained by the interference effect of the Fabry–Pérot-like cavity. Based on polarization-transformation analysis, the calculated axial ratio (AR) shown in Figure 2c remains below 3 dB from 10.2 to 11.7 GHz, indicating effective circular polarization generation. These results demonstrate that the proposed rotator achieves broadband LTC polarization conversion with high conversion efficiency. Figure 2d illustrates the transmittance of the meta-atom under distinct circular polarizations. Across the entire frequency band, tRx maintains a high level exceeding 0.9, whereas tLx is significantly reduced below 0.3. This behavior confirms that the structure functions as a highly efficient circular polarization converter, transmitting circularly polarized waves of one handedness and suppressing those of the opposite handedness.
FIGURE 2
To further demonstrate the arbitrary-polarization rotation capability of the TCM, full-wave simulations were performed. By cascading two LTC converters, a polarization-control device capable of generating arbitrary polarization states is constructed, as shown in Figure 3a. And the spectra of linear polarization transmission and phase difference of the meta atom are plotted in Figure 3b. The polarization of the out-going waves can be discretionarily regulated by rotating the second LTC converter by an angle α, indicating that the two layers can be mechanically rotated relative to each other, thereby altering the polarization state of the output wave. Figures 3c,d portrays the simulation and experimental results of the mechanically tunable polarization rotator for a normally incident x-polarized wave rotated by α = 0° and 90°, respectively. When the rotation angle is set to 0°, the co-polarized transmission txx is observed to be nearly unity above 9.5 GHz, while the cross-polarized transmission tyx remains extremely low indicating that maintain the original polarization property well. Conversely, when the rotation angle is 90°, the situation is reversed: the cross-polarized transmission tyx rises up to 0.9 over the wide 9–12.5 GHz, whereas the co-polarized transmission is txx significantly suppressed. To demonstrate the arbitrary polarization rotation abilities experimentally, samples are fabricated based on printed circuit board (PCB) technology. The black curves represent the measured results obtained in a microwave anechoic chamber, as shown in Figures 3c,d. The experimental results show good agreement with the simulated results. That is to say, any desired polarization rotation can be obtained simply by changing the rotation angle of the second LTC rotator. Thus, the well-designed device can serve as a freely tunable broadband polarization rotator with high efficiency.
FIGURE 3
To reveal the physical mechanism of continuous arbitrary linear polarization reconfiguration of the proposed TCM, the Jones matrix model is established to characterize the two-layer linear tensor converter structure based on Equations 1–4. The fixed first-layer LTC (LTC1) acts as a linear-to-circular polarization converter with a unitary Jones matrix formulated as:which converts the incident x-polarized wave into a standard right-hand circularly polarized (RCP) wave . The second rotatable LTC (LTC2) can be mechanically in-plane rotated by an angle α and its initial zero-angle Jones matrix is given by . After coordinate similarity transformation, the rotation-dependent matrix of the second layer is derived as:where and denote the rotation and inverse rotation matrices, respectively. According to the transmission matrix cascading principle of anisotropic metasurfaces, the total Jones matrix of the entire polarization modulation system is uniformly expressed as:
By substituting the x-polarized incident field and simplifying the circular polarization phase rotation property, the closed-form solution of the output electric field is obtained as:
The output field components possess zero phase difference with only a global phase term, indicating that the reconfigurable electromagnetic wave maintains an ideal linear polarization state with high polarization purity. The derived formula theoretically proves that the output polarization tilt angle φ is strictly equal to the mechanical rotation angle , demonstrating that continuous mechanical rotation of the LTC2 enables arbitrary linear polarization tuning within the range of 0°–90°, which fundamentally validates the arbitrary polarization reconfiguration capability of the designed TCM-FRA. In practical implementation, two non-ideal electromagnetic effects inevitably affect the real radiation performance. The near-field electromagnetic coupling between the two resonant metasurface layers distorts the ideal unitary polarization transformation matrix, resulting in slight cross-polarization deterioration and angular calibration deviation, which is effectively suppressed by optimizing the air gap distance between layers. In addition, multiple reflections and multipath interference occurring among the cascaded metasurface layers and the bottom phase-modulated PCM introduce in-band insertion loss ripples and cause bandwidth inconsistency between the single metasurface unit and the integrated antenna system.
By combining the proposed TCM and PCM, a novel polarization-reconfigurable TCM-FRA is proposed and demonstrated. Conventional FRAs can only achieve a single polarization (x-, y-). As a result, achieving a reconfigurable FRA remains challenging. However, our designed TCM can overcome this problem, which can transmit x-polarization incidence wave to desired arbitrary polarization transmission wave, while reflect the orthogonal one y-polarization wave. The bottom reflective metasurface named PCM acts as both a polarization converter and a phase compensator, which compensates for the phase lag introduced by the path difference between the feed antenna and the metasurface. As illustrated in Figure 4a, the meta-atom of PCM composes of an arrow-shaped center strip with two strips parallel to the center strip, which can be along β +45°/-45° for better reflection and phase coverage performances. It can convert the incident x-polarizated wave into a y-polarized one with a high reflection coefficient. The optimized parameters are: p2 = 6.5, h2 = 3, l1 = 3, l2 = 0.5, w = 0.5, rin = 2.1, rout = 2.9, in millimeter. To cover a full +360° phase range to provide continuous phase compensation, just changing open angle α2 from 20° to 80° for both β = +45° and −45° cases, respectively. At the same time, the reflected magnitude is almost above 0.9 across the phase range at 11 GHz depicted in Figure 4b. Furthermore, the meta-atom of PCM can work with broadband as shown in Figures 4c,d. The amplitude magnitude Ryx above 0.85 from 8 GHz to 12 GHz and the phase distribution shows dispersionless.
FIGURE 4
The ME-dipole is selected as the feed source owing to its symmetric radiation characteristics in both the E- and H-planes. The schematic configuration of the proposed ME-dipole feed is illustrated in Figures 5a,b. The structure features a compact design, comprising a central radiating element and surrounding metallic patches, which facilitates miniaturization and enables superior integration with the underlying PCM. Final optimized parameters are: p2 = 19.5, a1 = 5, a2 = 1.1, a3 = 0.1, b1 = 5, b2 = 6.4, b3 = 0.1, hd = 3, rk = 1, L = 12, rl = 1.1, in millimeter. The antenna performance, including return loss and radiation patterns, is presented in Figure 5c. Within the frequency range of 10–12 GHz, the gain remains stable at 7-8 dBi, while the return loss stays below −15 dB. Figures 5d–f display the radiation patterns at 9, 10, and 11 GHz, respectively. The patterns maintain a highly stable shape without significant beam splitting or deflection, thereby verifying the broadband stability of the feed.
FIGURE 5
According to the ray-tracing principle, the required phase distribution can be calculated by the following Equation 5:here, denotes the compensation phase at the (m, n) element. and represent the x and y positions of the (m, n) element, respectively. is an arbitrary initial phase. is the vertical distance between the TCM and the bottom PCM, which is set to 75 mm. The calculated phase distribution facilitates the conversion of the spherical wavefront emitted by the feed antenna into a planar wavefront as illustrated in Figure 6b. The corresponding configuration of the proposed TCM-FRA is depicted in Figure 6a.
FIGURE 6
To experimentally validate the broadband polarization selection capabilities, a prototype is fabricated based on printed circuit board (PCB) technology, as depicted in Figures 7b–e. The TCM adopts F4B substrate with dielectric constant ε = 2.2 and dielectric constant tanδ = 0.002, whereas the PCM is fabricated on the dielectric substrate with ε = 2.65 and tanδ = 0.0015. All substrate parameters are provided by the manufacturer for the 10–12 GHz frequency range. The broadband arbitrary-polarization reconfigurable TCM-FRA is characterized inside a microwave anechoic chamber as illustrated in Figure 7a. In order to achieve precise and repeatable polarization regulation, positioning holes are reserved on the edges of the PCB, and uniformly spaced distributed holes are fabricated at 5° angular intervals on the upper-layer LTC. The rotating metasurface layer can be accurately aligned and rigidly locked at desired target angles using nylon screws and nuts, ensuring high-precision angular calibration and stable mechanical fixation during measurement. In the measurement setup, the receiving antenna is mounted on a turntable and positioned within the far-field region of the transmitting horn antenna to capture the radiation patterns and polarization performances. The top and bottom layers of the rotator in TCM are shown in Figures 7b,c, while the underlying PCM consists of a 31 × 31 array of unit cells arranged along the x and y-axis as shown in Figures 7d,e.
FIGURE 7
The simulated and measured return losses for successive mechanical rotation angles ranging from α = 0°–90° with a step of 15° are illustrated in Figures 8a,f,k, 9a,f,k, 10a,f,k,p, respectively. It can be observed that the return loss remains below −10 dB across the operating band of 10–12 GHz. The measured return loss is slightly higher than the simulated results, which can be attributed to fabrication tolerances and SMA soldering imperfections. The simulated and measured realized gains for all rotation angles from 0° to 90° are presented in Figures 8b,g,l, Figures 9b,g,l and Figures 10b,g,l,q, respectively. The simulated realized gain exceeds 20 dBi for all three cases, whereas the measured results exhibit slight degradation. The simulated radiation patterns are performed at 10 GHz, 11 GHz and 12 GHz for rotation angles α = 0°, 45°, and 90° cases as shown in Figures 8c–f,h–j,m–o. The measured radiation patterns at 10 GHz, 11 GHz and 12 GHz for rotation angle α = 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 90° are plotted in Figures 9c–f,h–j,m–o and Figures 10c-f,h-j,m-o,r-t. It is clearly observed that the proposed TCM-FRA enables arbitrary polarization control of incident electromagnetic waves through mechanical rotation of the upper TCM layer.
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
Table 1 summarizes the comprehensive performance comparison between the proposed TCM-FRA and reported previous works from existing literature. Traditional FRAs in (Chen, 2024) and (Deng et al., 2016) feature simple structures but adopt fixed polarization modes, lacking polarization reconfigurability for multi-scenario communication applications. The 3D-printed mechanically rotatable RA in (Mei et al., 2020) supports full tunability of LP, LHCP and RHCP and realizes a wide fractional bandwidth of 37.5%, yet it suffers from a higher profile height compared with conventional FRAs. The dual-band dual-LP FRA in (Yu et al., 2026) can only operate with fixed x/y linear polarization. The antenna in (Yu and Xiao, 2026) adopts a PIN-diode electronic control strategy to realize 0°–90° arbitrary LP tuning. Nevertheless, it not only exhibits the narrower bandwidth and the lower peak gain, but also features a relatively complex control structure and inferior comprehensive performance. In contrast, the proposed TCM-FRA achieves a well-balanced comprehensive performance, realizing efficient electronic 0°–90° arbitrary LP tuning to overcome the fixed-polarization limitation of conventional FRAs and the complex structure and poor performance of traditional electronically controlled reconfigurable antennas.
TABLE 1
| References | Antenna | Fractional bandwidth | Peak gain (dBi) | Scan angel (deg) | Aperture efficiency | Overall loss (dB) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Luo et al., 2021) | FRA Based on Polarization Twister | 20% | 22.5 | Fixed polarization | 29% | N.A. |
| (Fan et al., 2024) | Low-Cost Metal-Only FRA | 12.8% | 33.9 | Fixed polarization | 53.8% | N.A. |
| (He et al., 2025) | 3D-printed mechanically rotating RA | 37.5% | 21.4 | LP/LHCP/RHCP fully tunability | 20.7% | 2.4 |
| (Chen, 2024) | Dual-band dual-LP FRA | 16.1%/12.1% | 28.32/30.61 | Fixed x/y dual-LP only | 43.05%/34.19% | 4.6–5.9 |
| (Deng et al., 2016) | PIN-diode electronically controlled FRA | 11.43% | 19.1 | 0°–90° Arbitrarily tunable LP | 30.6% | N.A. |
| This work | TCM-FRA | 18.18% | 25.1 | 0°–90° Arbitrarily tunable LP | 33.13% | 5.26 |
Comparison between the TCM-FRA and reported RAs.
3 Discussion
In conclusion, a polarization-reconfigurable TCM is proposed and demonstrated, whose polarization state can be continuously controlled via mechanical rotation. The polarization state of the transmitted wave can be continuously tuned by rotating the second rotator. By integrating the proposed TCM and PCM, a TCM-FRA is demonstrated, achieving arbitrary polarization control while maintaining a low-profile structure and high-gain performance. The fabricated TCM-FRA can achieve a maximum gain of 25.1 dBi within the operating frequency range of 10–12 GHz, corresponding to a fractional bandwidth of 18.18% and a maximum effective aperture efficiency of 33.13%. Although only representative polarization states are experimentally demonstrated, the proposed architecture provides a general platform for reconfigurable FRAs. By replacing the bottom metasurface with phase-tunable units, additional functionalities such as beamforming and multi-mode beam scanning can be enabled. In comparison to prior polarization control devices, the proposed polarization controller features a lower profile, enhanced flexibility, reduced cost, and better maintainability, rendering it highly attractive for wireless communication applications.
4 Experimental section
For experimental validation, we chose a reconfigurable FRA prototype produced in low-cost printed circuit board (PCB) technology. The TCM adopts F4B substrate with dielectric constant ε = 2.2 and dielectric constant tanδ = 0.002, whereas the PCM is fabricated on the dielectric substrate with ε = 2.65 and tanδ = 0.0015. And feed is equipped with the 50 Ω SMA connector for interfacing with the VNA.
The scattering characteristics of the reconfigurable FRA and the two-dimensional radiation pattern are measured using the turntable method. Standard linearly-polarized polarization horn antenna operates as a receiver, positioned at a distance greater than 2L2/λ to ensure the measurement is conducted in the far-field region, where L is the maximum aperture size of the reconfigurable FRA, and λ is the wavelength at the measured frequency. The reconfigurable FRA and horn antenna are connected to a VNA for real-time data acquisition. A computer-controlled stepping motor operates the turntable, enabling it to rotate 360° in 1° increments. The radiation pattern is subsequently determined based on the electric field magnitudes.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Author contributions
KS: Writing – original draft, Data curation, Investigation, Validation, Conceptualization. LJ: Resources, Writing – review and editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Supervision, Conceptualization. DZ: Validation, Writing – review and editing. ZW: Writing – review and editing, Supervision, Resources.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 62201500); the Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province under Grant No. ZCLY24F0101.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge all the participants and administrators in this study for their valuable support in the research process.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The reviewer RL declared a shared affiliation with the authors at the time of review.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
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Summary
Keywords
arbitrary-polarization, broadband, FRA, reconfigurable, twisted cascaded metasurface
Citation
Song K, Jing L, Zhang D and Wang Z (2026) Broadband arbitrary-polarization reconfigurable folded reflectarray antenna based on twisted cascaded metasurfaces. Front. Mater. 13:1929543. doi: 10.3389/fmats.2026.1929543
Received
06 July 2026
Revised
19 August 2026
Accepted
20 August 2026
Published
10 September 2026
Volume
13 - 2026
Edited by
Juan-Feng Zhu, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore
Reviewed by
Rujiang Li, Zhejiang University, China
Li-an Bian, Changsha University of Science and Technology, China
Zicheng Song, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Song, Jing, Zhang and Wang.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Liqiao Jing, liqiaoj@zju.edu.cn; Zuojia Wang, zuojiawang@zju.edu.cn
† These authors have contributed equally to this work
Disclaimer
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