Argentina's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) spans 1,082,467 km². Of this, 128,759 km² are designated as MPAs, accounting for about 12% of the country's national waters (UNEP-WCMC, 2025). However, <2% of these MPAs are actively implemented or effectively managed (Marine Conservation Institute, 2025). Note: These figures do not include the Islas Malvinas- Falkland Islands due to their disputed sovereignty and separate administrative system.

The San Antonio Bay Natural Protected Area (ANPBSA in Spanish but from now on in this paper, this will be referred to as San Antonio Bay MPA and with the acronym of SAB MPA) spans approximately 812 km² of which 592km² is marine area (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014) (Figure 1). The MPA, situated in the northwest of the San Matías Gulf, is home to 29,284 inhabitants, according to the most recent official census conducted in 2010 across San Antonio Oeste, Las Grutas, and San Antonio Este (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). Characterized by sandy/shell beaches, rocky shores and an extensive salt marsh (AMP Argentina, 2025; Salas et al., 2016), this high primary productivity area sustains a rich diversity of marine and coastal species (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). The MPA is multi-zone with varying levels of protection, in accordance with the categories established under provincial Law 2669.

The SAB MPA was designated in 1993 under provincial Law MN°2670/93. The MPA was created with the primary objective of protecting and conserving the environments on which the reproduction, rest and feeding of various birds, both residents and migratory, depend (Law MN° 2670/93) “To protect and conserve the environments on which the reproductive, resting and feeding localities of diverse resident and migratory birds depend, as well as to protect the faunal species and organisms that rest, feed or reproduce in the Bay area” (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). In 1993, this site was also recognized as an area of ecological importance and classified as an International Reserve of the Hemispheric Network of Shorebird Reserves (AMP Argentina, 2025; WHSRN, 2019), with 16 bird species classified as globally threatened (BirdLife International, 2024). Furthermore, in 2008, BirdLife International designated San Antonio Bay as an Important Bird Area (IBA) (AMP Argentina, 2025; BirdLife International, 2024). Over 18 species of shorebirds rely on it as a migratory and/or non-breeding stopover site, with a minimum estimate of 70,000 specimens present in the bay simultaneously (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). Specifically, between 25% and 50% of the total population of the Rufa Red Knot (Calidris canutus rufa)—estimated at 30,000 individuals—passes through San Antonio Bay during their southward migration from the Arctic to Tierra del Fuego, which spans an expansive distance of 16,000 kilometers (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014; González et al., 2006). This species has declined by 40% since 2000 (González et al., 2004) and is listed as endangered under the Bonn Convention.

Despite SAB MPA being designated as a protected provincial natural area in 1993, the management plan was only published in 2014 under provincial decree No.398/2014, meaning the protected area was in the designation phase for over two decades (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). Furthermore, it was only in 2008, through provincial decree M No.1003/2008 that the boundaries were established and clearly defined (Decreto Provincial M Nø, 1003/2008). This puts into question the effectiveness of this MPA, as an MPA that was designated for an extended time without being implemented is often referred to as a “paper park” (Grorud-Colvert et al., 2021; Relano and Pauly, 2023).

The long-standing designation, coupled with the lack of proper implementation, has left this MPA vulnerable to the severe environmental and human-use challenges it continuously faces, despite its ecological importance (AMP Argentina, 2025). These include improper chemical waste (Fricke et al., 2015; Gastaldi et al., 2024; Häder et al., 2020; Helbling et al., 2022, 2024; Martinetto et al., 2011; Seco Pon and Pereyra, 2021), spread of exotic species (Schwindt et al., 2014; Pereyra et al., 2021; Arcángel et al., 2022; de la Barra et al., 2023), overfishing (Florez et al., 2024; Ocampo Reinaldo et al., 2023; Romero et al., 2017), unplanned urbanization (Bonuccelli and Narvarte, 2017; Bonuccelli et al., 2021), and unregulated tourism (Beltrami and Martínez, 2019).

Since becoming a recognized protected area, San Antonio Bay's tourism industry boomed. Between 2006 and 2008, the resorts near the MPA faced the highest growth rates in the country (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). However, the influx of tourists has led to the deterioration of many dunes and other sensitive ecosystems—which serve as critical feeding and nesting grounds—due to motorized vehicles and increased beach access (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). With the growing tourism industry, the municipal landfill in San Antonio Oeste is reaching its limits and resulting in infectious hotspots, illegal dumping, and significant landscape degradation. Notably, the landfill is located just ~3 km from the nearest residential area or community space, posing additional health and environmental risks for local residents (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). Poor management of industrial waste and sewage has spilt heavy metals and effluents into surrounding environments, leading to eutrophication (Saad et al., 2019; Caniguan et al., 2025) and health risks for both biota (Marinho et al., 2017; Vázquez et al., 2007) and humans (De Pietri et al., 2008; Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). For example, anthropogenic debris such as plastics and paper have been found in the nests of marine birds (Seco Pon and Pereyra, 2021), and children between the ages of 6–8 in San Antonio Oeste were found to have elevated blood lead levels exceeding permitted levels (Comisión Multisectorial, 2015). Earlier implementation of zoning and waste management regulations, sustainable tourism guidelines, and stakeholder education initiatives for planners and tourism operators could have mitigated the impacts of the seasonal tourism surge faced by the SAB MPA between its designation in 1993 and the approval of its management plan in 2014.

To understand the dynamics of co-design during the designation phase of the SAB MPA and how key actors perceive the SAB MPA 8 years after the management plan was implemented, the first author conducted 15 semi-structured interviews in January 2022. The interviews quoted in this article were originally collected for a previous study (Relaño Écija, 2022). For that study, all participants provided written informed consent to participate. The research protocol was approved by the Behavioural Research Ethics Board of The University of British Columbia on 16 April 2021 (ethics ID number H20–03281A003PAA) and involved stakeholders from various sectors, including local NGOs, scientists, tourism boards, fishers, and government officials. They revealed both voluntary and involuntary forms of stakeholder exclusion, highlighting key barriers and opportunities for improved management. To design the interview questions, the first author reviewed both gray and academic literature and held informal discussions with key actors involved in the MPA, who were selected for their generational ties to the area predating its designation and their direct or indirect dependence on it for their livelihood. It's important to note that they were not the same actors who participated in the original designation of the MPA in 1993, though they come from the same stakeholder groups.

Despite the management plan, published in 2014, stating that participatory planning “through an active-consultative type of participation with direct representation” was a priority during the designation phase (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014), data from the interviews contradicts this. The interviews suggest that participation was skewed toward certain actor groups, undermining the intended balanced representation. The management plan states that 49 stakeholders with supposedly different but direct interests in the management of the MPA were involved. The management plan also states that all stakeholders were heard and willing to yield their positions for the “greater good” (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). However, this contradicts the list of actors—also outlined in the management plan—who participated in meetings during the proposed and designated stages, as they did not represent the broader community interests in the MPA, for unknown reasons (Figure 2). Nearly 50% of stakeholder involvement came from government institutions, with no representation from fishers, who represent a key economic activity in the region (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014). This may stem from a combination of factors, such as selective inclusion, the convenience of choosing familiar and readily-available stakeholders, and time and budgetary constraints.

During the semi-structured interviews, a scientist from a local university explained “There was quite active participation of some members … but very important ones were missing, including artisanal fishing, which practically has not been included”. The reasons for their absence could vary widely, ranging from not having received information about the meetings, lacking the time or capacity to attend, or even feeling that the issues discussed were unrelated to their concerns—even when the meeting information had been properly communicated. The use of technical language, lack of mutual knowledge exchange, and absence of trust may also discourage fishers from attending meetings, which could have been mitigated with the use of adapted materials and facilitators. As Hoschke et al. (2024) point out, these power dynamics and one-way knowledge flows can hinder genuine fisher engagement in marine governance processes. Their lack of engagement in the SAB MPA underscores a broader challenge in fostering inclusive participation, as artisanal fishers are key stakeholders whose input is vital for effective and equitable management of the protected area. Addressing these barriers to participation should be a priority to ensure holistic and representative governance.

A retired artisanal fisher explained “We told the Fisheries [Secretary] to protect the sea. But there is no protection here, [...] we are going further and further out to fish”. Another artisanal fisher explained how commercial fishers of hake and shrimps are using nets unsustainably: “[Commercial fishers collect] bags of 400 crates' worth of fish and seafood, and of those 400 crates, only 100 crates go into the hold … [due to fish size regulations]. The other 300 go back into the water, dead”. These statements directly reflect the ongoing unsustainable extraction of fish stocks in the MPA and its vicinity, and the lack of communication between different authorities, underscoring a critical barrier to effective MPA management. They also highlight the need to prioritize increased participation of artisanal fishers and other key stakeholders to ensure holistic and representative governance. However, in some cases, stakeholders voluntarily chose not to participate. As the Secretary of Tourism of Río Negro explained, “I participated in the drafting of the Management Plan… of course the work teams invites all the people and institutions that it considers [...] [to] have some direct or indirect impact [...], what often happens is that not all of them participate”.

Additionally, many local stakeholders exhibit a significant disconnect from the environment that surrounds them. As a biologist with decades of experience working in this area explains, “I think that people know very little about this protected area. If they know that there is a protected area, they see it almost as an impediment and not as an opportunity for a better place”. This is further exemplified by the following statement from the President of the San Antonio Bay Environmental Protection Agency in 2022, “For us, the most serious problems that we have regarding damage to the area or non-compliance with the regulations come from the local people… [for example, with] shorebirds, [locals] recognise them as an economic resource that allows them to extend the [tourist] season [for business]”.

Some interviewees noted that, instead of fostering solutions, conflicts among stakeholders emerged during the MPA's designation phase. As a businessperson involved in eco-tourism remarked, “We didn't go hand-in-hand, but rather we went crashing into each other”. Rapid tourism growth can introduce new prospects to the local community that define success through economic outputs, often leading to extractive and unsustainable practices and place alienation (Cocola-Gant, 2023; Higgins-Desbiolles et al., 2019). Others emphasized the importance of renewing the management plan and incorporating more co-design processes. The San Antonio Bay Environmental Protection Agency explained, “We must work on updating the management plan, and there must be discussions with all sectors regarding uses [...]. These conflicts of uses that we have must be resolved in this new period so that it is easier for people to understand why we have a Natural Protected Area [...]”.

The SAB MPA serves as an example of how the absence of stakeholders in the initial stages of MPA creation, and shortcomings of the participatory strategy during the management plan, can result in a poorly co-designed management plan and conflicts that lead to subsequent environmental degradation in the area (Bianchini et al., 2018). This highlights the importance of developing an inclusive and comprehensive participatory approach for the main actors within the MPA such as fishers and tourism operators, that ensures the involvement of a wide variety of stakeholders in management discussions, accurately representing all those who depend on the MPA. However, as evidenced through these interviews, many stakeholders voluntarily chose not to participate in MPA management discussions or exhibited a disconnect from their environment. This is why, collectively designing and managing a protected area requires a fundamental shift “of a system's form, structure, function or purpose” (Moser, 2016). This challenge is echoed by the Secretary of Tourism Development in Río Negro, who, when discussing the obstacles to implementing change, remarked: “[...] the sustainable development proposal often implies a change in community customs that are entrenched in popular culture”.

This is why the intervention presented in this paper focuses on engaging local communities by leveraging popular culture and utilizing spaces traditionally used for sharing and leisure among different transgenerational actors. The aim is to highlight the importance of the MPA and foster a sense of shared responsibility in its proper management—an endeavor in which everyone can play a part.

The objective of this intervention is to demonstrate that community-building activities, such as festivals celebrating the arrival of a migratory species—originally the inspiration for establishing this protected area—can effectively foster intergenerational engagement and multi-sectoral collaboration. These events bring together diverse actors from different backgrounds and with varying interests, while simultaneously enhancing a shared sense of responsibility and ownership for the protection of the coastal environment. By leveraging emblematic or characteristic species to connect with the community, these initiatives can align conservation goals with cultural traditions. Incorporating activities such as music and food festivals, artisanal markets, and other local traditions into the community-building festival not only celebrates the arrival of the shorebirds but also reinforces a collective appreciation for the area's unique natural beauty.

The intervention is the Shorebird Festival (in Spanish: Festival de Aves Playeras), primarily coordinated by Fundación Inalafquen, is a community-wide initiative that engages both residents and tourists in the protection and conservation of the San Antonio Bay area. The festival involves multiple communities, including residents, tourists, educational institutions, and various organizations, creating a diverse and inclusive platform for environmental education and engagement. Since 2010, this annual event has celebrated the presence of migratory shorebirds within the MPA, aiming to foster a commitment to their conservation.

The primary goal is to raise awareness about the ecological significance of shorebirds and their habitats among a broad audience. By engaging the community through educational and cultural activities, the festival seeks to instill a sense of stewardship and encourage active participation in conservation efforts, thereby promoting the festival promotes better management of the San Antonio Bay MPA. It educates the public on the importance of conservation, promotes responsible use of natural resources, and encourages collaborative efforts among stakeholders, enhancing the overall effectiveness of the MPA's management strategies.

This approach encourages deeper community connection to the environment, fostering stewardship behaviors that extend beyond the festival itself. By instilling pride in local, natural and cultural heritage, these events inspire citizens to demand better coastal decision-making and governance. Moreover, such initiatives create opportunities for intergenerational learning, where younger generations gain insights into traditions and ecological values, while older generations feel empowered by their role in mentoring and sharing knowledge. Ultimately, these festivals can catalyze sustained community mobilization, stronger conservation outcomes, and the promotion of inclusive and participatory coastal governance.

The PRIDE campaign aimed to transform behaviors and intentions within the Bay community to limit any barriers to, and negative perceptions of, coastal and marine conservation. Behavior changes are a crucial factor in the long-term success of conservation efforts as it leads in a behavioral shift of the local community in how they interact with and perceive their environment (Ashley et al., 2019; Sullivan-Wiley et al., 2023). Participants in a study by Gkargkavouzi et al. (2020) highlighted how information campaigns and educational initiatives are crucial to influence attitudes and perceptions to enact positive behavior intentions. The PRIDE campaign used community survey results (targeting residents, tourists, beach users and students) to guide its strategy for enhancing conservation, social cohesion, and engagement (Fundacion Inalafquen, 2019).

To organize and co-design these activities at the festival ensuring the involvement of the community required the collaboration of various organizations and the San Antonio Municipality. The collaborators, diverse in their specialization and type of entity, represent a large variety of backgrounds and expertise, adding strategic value to the festival each year. The collaborators across the editions included companies, shops, hotels (31%), entrepreneurial artisanal craftswomen (28%), non-profits (22%), municipal and provincial government (8%), others (7%) and educational institutions (4%).

The collaborators for each edition changed every year depending on thematic, human resources to search for collaborations, and institutional and/or personal interest. One factor that may help explain the widespread acceptance and visibility of the festival is the formal endorsement it received under Provincial Law 4644 in 2011, although the collaboration agreements are not formalized under this law. Specifically, Article 4 of the law states that “all activities to be carried out in relation to the Migratory Shorebirds Week shall be considered of provincial interest of provincial interest and will be sponsored by the Legislature of Río Negro” (LEY Nø 4644, 2010).

The first and second editions of the festival were organized by Inalafquen with funding from Rare Conservation. Legal declarations and the active dissemination of festival activities and successes through social media played a key role in securing additional funding and support for future editions. As a result, a growing number of institutions—both governmental and non-governmental, at national and international levels—contributed in various ways. These included providing financial support, proposing activities, and sending workshop leaders, exhibitors, and panelists to participate in different sessions. Some of the key supporting institutions were Legislature of Río Negro, Secretary of the Environment and Climate Change, Municipality of San Antonio Oeste, Aves Argentinas, Fundacion Felix de Azara, Fundación Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, WHSRN, Women4Biodiversity, and International Conservation Fund of Canada, among others.

Financial assistance from local businesses and companies evolved, with some editions being supported entirely with contributions from neighbors and local businesses. It demonstrated the community's awareness of the importance of conserving the attributes and functions of the SAB MPA, who appropriate the festival and consider the festival crucial in terms of developing a meeting space that multiplies socio-environmental values. New actors and greater weight in the human dimension have made it possible to achieve positive results in a sustained manner with the community.

Building collaborative momentum requires strategic cultivation. The festival's growth demonstrates the power of starting with dedicated partners like Inalafquen and Rare Conservation and strategically leveraging initial successes (Fundacion Inalafquen, 2019). To empower the festival in the long-term, recognition and active communication (social media, press coverage) were crucial for attracting a widening circle of collaborators. This highlights the importance of actively showcasing value and impact to build sustained multi-level partnerships and diversify funding streams, moving toward community ownership.

However, while the growing involvement of local businesses and residents highlights the community's commitment to the San Antonio Bay and its MPA, the presence and active participation of the state remain essential. The voluntary efforts and financial contributions from neighbors, though inspiring, cannot substitute the need for sustained governmental action and policy implementation. The festival itself stands as living proof of how deeply rooted environmental awareness is becoming in the region, serving as a catalyst for collective engagement and cultural recognition of the MPA's value. Despite this growing consciousness, many of the structural issues threatening the area—including pollution, habitat degradation, and insufficient enforcement of regulations—persist. These challenges require coordinated institutional responses, long-term planning, and adequate funding. In this sense, the festival's success should be seen not as an endpoint, but as a strong call for reinforced public responsibility and strategic collaboration between civil society and the state.

Leveraging popular culture and local traditions (e.g., music, food, artisanal markets) within the festival framework proved highly effective in attracting diverse, intergenerational community members and multiple sectors. For example, involving rangers and artists who can present their work supports local livelihoods and collaboration. Grounding conservation messaging within familiar social and leisure spaces helped bridge the gap between environmental goals and community customs, fostering a sense of shared identity and collective appreciation for the MPA's natural heritage.

Multifaceted communication amplifies reach and impact. Employing a diverse range of communication methods and activities with various organizations and community members, from performances and workshops to visual arts and online campaigns, maximized the festival's appeal across different demographics and interests.

To disseminate information about the festival and mobilize the community, audio media like local TV and radio channels (SAO TV, Canal 10, Radio Municipal, Radio 90.7) were used to keep residents informed. Physical visual media like newspapers (Informativo hoy, Diario Río Negro, Noticias Net) were also used to inform residents of the festival. With the assistance of a graphic designer, flyers and posters with the festival logo were created to share information on the festival in community and high-pedestrian traffic areas and allowed the festival to be more recognized and thematic (Figure 3). Social media, notably Facebook (accounts like Fundacion Inalafquen, Festival Aves Playeras Bahia San Antonio) and Instagram (accounts under the same name), were used to target younger audiences. Lastly, word of mouth was equally very powerful between neighbors, families and friends.

As the festival's visibility expanded nationally, there was also greater press coverage internationally. The #weareallshorebirds campaign, created as an activity of the festival to gain visibility in social media, expanded to more than 19 countries and more than 190 institutions (Figure 4). This holistic approach not only increased local participation but also significantly boosted national and international visibility and amplified the conservation message far beyond the immediate locality.

The San Antonio festival acted as one of the first promoters of shorebird festivals for other regions in Argentina, including: Rio Grande (Tierra del Fuego), Rio Gallegos (Santa Cruz), Mar Chiquita (Cordoba), Bahia de Samborombon (Buenos Aires), and Albufera Mar Chiquita (Buenos Aires). The success of the festival also reached Peru (Lambayeque) where they celebrated their 8^th festival in 2024 and in Mexico (La Paz, Baja California Sur) where they celebrated their 2^nd festival in 2025 (Figure 5).

The San Antonio Bay case demonstrates that even when an MPA lacks co-design in its initial phases, community-led initiatives can retrospectively introduce crucial elements of participatory management. By fostering dialogue, collaboration, and shared ownership at the community level, the Shorebird Festival helped mitigate some of the apathy and conflict resulting from the initial top-down approach (Bianchini et al., 2018), demonstrating that co-design principles can be dynamically applied to improve MPA effectiveness and ownership over time. Co-design can be a flexible, influential and dynamic process, although ideally should always be put in practice from the very first stages of planning an MPA.

The Shorebird Festival at the SAB MPA demonstrates the importance of community engagement and social cohesion in safeguarding coastal ecosystems and shorebirds. The festival provided a bottom-up approach to increasing multi-sector collaboration, co-designed activities, and environmental stewardship. The lack of co-design in an MPA, whilst more effective and should be implemented at the designation phase of the MPA, does not disqualify co-design from being implemented later on to mitigate and rectify the apathy, conflict and exclusion that for example, the San Antonio Bay community faced during the development of the MPA.

Community festivals can catalyse stewardship and activism. Since the launch of the festival, alongside a growing awareness of the environmental degradation affecting the SAB MPA, a segment of the community has come to recognize that their well-being, health, and the sustainability of local fishing and tourism activities are directly tied to the bay's conservation and ecological quality. This Shorebird Festival served as more than an annual awareness event; it actively nurtured a sense of stewardship and shared responsibility for the MPA. Here awareness has translated into concrete actions, such as tangible pro-environmental behaviors (increased respect for MPA zoning and regulations) and broader civic action, such as community mobilization against detrimental development projects (e.g. oil/gas) (Duarte and Rebella, 2023).

By highlighting the importance of coastal bird species, festivals can influence policy and inspire conservation actions, ensuring the preservation of the MPA's ecosystems for future generations. Overall, the festival has proven to be a powerful tool for integrating social engagement with marine and coastal conservation. However, this does not diminish the crucial role of the government in supporting the MPA, as the formalization of the festival by the provincial government is not enough to address the ongoing management issues faced by the area. Whilst the festival has been held since 2010 and was formalized in 2011, the 2014 management plan included no mention of the festival or any other community engagement initiatives (Gobierno de la Provincia de Río Negro, 2014), likely because these efforts originated from the Inalafquen Foundation rather than the government. So far, the festival's positive activism and environmental stewardship has not been assessed in terms of whether they have been translated into lasting policy or participatory changes reflected in management decisions or governance structures. Additionally, the fact that the management plan has not been updated since 2014 makes it challenging to analyse the festival's impact since then, though the interviews conducted in 2022 provide insight into the lack of institutional changes that have occurred between 2014 and 2022.

The continued inconsistency between the festival and the formal governance frameworks in the SAB MPA limit the positive ecological and formal participatory outcomes that could be cultivated from community-led interventions. Thus, further evidence is required to determine the direct impact of the festivals on management and ecological outcomes to understand the long-term dynamics of building trust and participation.

Additionally, according to Edgar et al. (2014), Gill et al. (2017), and Watson et al. (2014), which identified critical capacity shortfalls that limit the success of MPAs, the SAB MPA's management requires several urgent actions in order to promote the values and objectives put forward by the festival. Although not assessed during this study, systemic governance changes must be developed for long-term sustainability, replicability and impact of community interventions. First, the professionalization of management is essential, with authorities at all organizational levels requiring qualified professionals as staff. The lack of a local and professional authority and the absence of adequate office space to support effective administration are critical shortcomings. Second, the establishment of a sufficient and independent budget is crucial to support the hiring and training of environmental guards, ensuring they are led by professionals and equipped for their roles (Gill et al., 2017). Lastly, clear and localized authority is necessary, ensuring that the management body is well-defined, knowledgeable about its responsibilities, and physically present within the territory to enable effective governance and coordination (Watson et al., 2014). Addressing these issues is vital for overcoming past challenges and achieving sustainable management of the SAB MPA, thereby continuing to empower communities and build social capital for sustained environmental defense.