Exams, which are difficult for students of all ages, cause performance anxiety. It is an important problem in many countries that can affect students’ achievement and academic performance (D’Agostino et al., 2022). Intense test anxiety causes students to feel emotionally and cognitively challenged and helpless and ultimately negatively affects test success. Test anxiety has become a serious problem as it causes many different negative consequences such as low self-esteem, dropping out of school, lack of social skills, performance anxiety, academic failure and the emergence of various psychological problems (Hughes, 2005). On average, one in two students in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries worry about the difficulty of exams and feel very anxious even if they are well prepared for the exam, and school-related anxiety is negatively associated with school performance and life satisfaction (OECD, 2017).

Test anxiety has been defined as the emotional, physiological, and behavioral reactions surrounding the possible consequences of negative evaluation in an upcoming test or exam (Zeidner, 1998). Test anxiety has two main sources: anxiety and affectivity. While the anxiety dimension mostly includes cognitive concerns related to one’s performance, affectivity is mostly autonomous reactions to the test situation (Hembree, 1988). Von der Embse et al. (2018) conducted a meta-analysis study on test anxiety for more than 30 years and found that standardized tests, university entrance exams, grade point average, perceived test difficulty, avoidant coping behaviors, achievement goals, age, gender, self-esteem and self-efficacy were related to test anxiety (Von der Embse et al., 2018).

It is generally assumed that the presence of evaluation stress increases state anxiety, especially in individuals with high trait anxiety. People with high trait anxiety are said to be more sensitive to evaluation anxiety. People with high trait anxiety are characterized by their predisposition to perceive threats. According to Eysenck’s Attentional Control Theory, anxiety disrupts the effective functioning of the goal-directed attention system, especially the two executive functions (inhibition and shifting). When anxious thoughts utilize the limited resources of working memory, fewer resources may remain for targeted tasks (Eysenck et al., 2007). As individuals become more aware of where their attention is, they begin to notice the sensations, thoughts and feelings that arise within them. When we realize that we have been distracted or given full attention to a thought, we can slowly return awareness back to the original object of focus and then watch where the mind goes next. Mindfulness can be defined as “noticing the present experience with acceptance” (Linehan, 1993).

Mindfulness is an awareness of thoughts, feelings and bodily sensations. Mindfulness requires directing and accepting attention to what is happening in the present moment without judgment (Bishop et al., 2004). Although its positive effects are known in many psychological problems, it contributes to the success of individuals by reducing their test anxiety to a tolerable level. Many scientific studies have been conducted on Mindfulness based interventions (MBI) (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Rapgay and Bystrisky, 2009; Malinowski, 2013). Mindfulness-based programs aim for individuals to learn this approach and use it in their daily lives. Mindfulness-based interventions help individuals to direct their attention to the here and now and learn to approach thoughts differently by realizing that thoughts are just thoughts (Bishop et al., 2004). Mindfulness interventions teach individuals mindfulness-based skills to use more functional strategies by accepting negative thoughts and emotions as they come to mind without judgment (Segal et al., 2012) Individuals increase their awareness through various exercises and practices and learn not to be captive to the negative thoughts that come to their minds. Through mindfulness practices, some cognitive processes such as cognitive flexibility and attention improve (Kuyken et al., 2010).

When we are consciously aware, we experience the world directly, not just through the lens of thought. Thoughts are not reality itself but just symbols and representations that symbolize reality. Mindfulness is in many ways a simple skill, because it only requires using the five senses to become aware of what is happening in the moment (Cardaciotto et al., 2008). While it is easy to be consciously aware for a minute or two, it is difficult to maintain this state of mind. This is against other natural tendencies of the brain. The brain uses its free time to focus on possible problems that need to be solved. This is evolutionarily useful, as it allows us to anticipate threats to our survival. But it is a dysfunctional way to live. Mindfulness is the resource that gives people the security they need, to meet challenging experiences with less resistance. Stress is part of everyday life. In the event of stress, thoughts, emotions and the body are affected and reflected in behavior. Stress distracts attention and concentration, increases anxiety and weakens social skills (Bartlett et al., 2021). Thus, when problems arise, people can act calmly, predictably and get more efficient results. Attention is an important mental power. Through mindfulness techniques the mind trains its attention, can pay more attention to what it wants to achieve and increase performance, it can give more constructive solutions instead of stress and anxiety (Maran et al., 2021).

By training the mind people can bring their attention to daily movements and to the “now” and the activities they are working on. All mindfulness practices draw attention to the present moment. The breath or any other object of focus for mindfulness is always in the present moment. Everything happens in the present moment. When attention is hijacked by a strong sensation or emotion, people lose the present moment. This does not mean that the present moment is really lost; it means that the experience of the present moment is lost. When attention is strong, people can do what they do moment by moment (Purser and Loy, 2013).

Studies have shown that mindfulness approach is effective in regulating students’ anxiety states. Studies have revealed that it affects the density of gray matter in the brain, increases the activation of the prefrontal cortex and reduces the activation of the amygdala, which is activated in situations such as fear and anxiety. Mindfulness interventions leads to permanent and positive changes in anxiety-related areas of the brain (Lutz et al., 2008a; Chiesa and Serretti, 2010; Goldin and Gross, 2010; Hölzel et al., 2011; Taren et al., 2013; Hernández-Saca, 2016). It has been revealed that the amygdala is less activated when individuals add mindfulness practices to their daily practices (Lutz et al., 2008b; Goldin and Gross, 2010). Researchers believe that “the act of deliberately activating the relaxation response inhibits the activation of the sympathetic nervous system in favor of the parasympathetic nervous system” (Edenfield and Saeed, 2012). During mindfulness meditation, the parasympathetic nervous system is activated (Edenfield and Saeed, 2012). And researchers stated that the anxiety response and the relaxation response cannot coexist at the same time. In summary, when the severity of test anxiety increases and its duration is prolonged, deterioration in the performance and disfunctionality in individual’s lives occurs (Linsay, 2002). One of the methods that can be applied to reduce test anxiety to the desired level is mindfulness intervention techniques. If children and adolescents start to benefit from mindfulness practices, they will be more competent in situations such as life stress, academic evaluation, performance anxiety and exam anxiety that they will face in the future. Mindfulness is called an approach that is a mixture of perception and acceptance of what is perceived; mindfulness is to perceive the present moment with a conscious mind and an open, loving and compassionate heart (Kiken et al., 2017).

In previous studies, there are meta-analysis studies showing that mindfulness interventions are effective in reducing anxiety levels (Bamber and Morpeth, 2019; Breedvelt et al., 2019). These meta-analysis studies examined the effect on general anxiety levels. In meta-analysis studies examining the effect of previous test anxiety interventions, they emphasized that the results of techniques including behavioral therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy and mixed approaches were positive (Ergene, 2003; Von der Embse et al., 2013). However, it is seen that mindfulness-based interventions are quite limited in these studies. It is thought that this study will provide guidance for future research and contribute to the comparison of different interventions. Therefore, the aim of the study is to examine the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on test anxiety. It was also examined whether the effects of mindfulness-based interventions varied depending on age, number of sessions, session frequency and intervention delivery format (online or face-to-face).

A meticulous search strategy was executed across multiple databases to collate studies investigating the impact of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) on test anxiety. Our search encompassed articles up to year 2022, ensuring a comprehensive capture of relevant research. The initial retrieval from electronic databases yielded a substantial volume of studies, which was then meticulously refined. Duplicates were systematically removed, leaving 86 studies for closer examination. The first screening stage involved assessing abstracts against our stringent inclusion criteria, which focused on the use of MBIs as an independent variable and test anxiety as an outcome measure. This stage concluded with 27 studies earmarked for full-text review. Each potential study underwent a thorough full-text evaluation to confirm compliance with our inclusion standards. During this scrutiny, studies lacking adequate statistical information, such as pre-test and post-test means and standard deviations, were excluded. Despite efforts to retrieve missing data by contacting authors, some studies were inevitably omitted from further analysis due to incomplete datasets. Of particular note, one study presented two distinct interventions—one delivered online and the other face-to-face both compared against a control group. To account for the unique characteristics and potential differential effects of each intervention mode, we considered these as separate comparisons within our analysis. Another study explored the efficacy of MBIs over varying durations, specifically 3 weeks and 8 weeks, also in comparison to a control group. Given the differential time frames, these were likewise treated as individual studies. Our meticulous selection process culminated in the inclusion of 18 studies, which encapsulated 20 comparisons due to the distinct intervention types and durations within certain studies. This rich dataset provided a robust foundation for our meta-analytical investigation into the effectiveness of MBIs on test anxiety (see Figure 1).

Many meta- analysis have been conducted on the effects of mindfulness for anxiety disorder but not specifically for test anxiety. Centralized exams or exams required for specialization in a field are included in the education systems of all countries, and uncontrollable test anxiety negatively affects physiological, emotional and performance levels of all age groups. Considering the limited studies on test anxiety, which is an indispensable part of the lives of individuals at all age levels and the increasing anxiety levels of various groups as the exams approach, it is thought that there is a need for studies that reveal the effectiveness of mindfulness studies. Therefore, this meta-analysis is conducted for revealing the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on test anxiety.

Researches have shown that mindfulness can affect exam anxiety. Although there are some researches about the interventions of mindfulness on exam anxiety have conducted, no meta-analysis have examined the effects of mindfulness on test anxiety. This article is a meta-analysis of effects of mindfulness interventions on exam anxiety which is conducted with secondary, middle, college, high school and adolescent students sample. At the same time, a limited number of studies examining exam anxiety, which is extremely important for students, have been accessed. The majority of the included studies reported statistically significant effect sizes, affirming the practical significance of MBIs in this area. The negative sign of the effect size aligns with the anticipated outcome of reduced anxiety levels post-intervention.

Although there are many studies demonstrating the positive effect of mindfulness studies on general anxiety disorders (Spijkerman et al., 2016), common psychiatric disorders (Hedman-Lagerlöf et al., 2018), adolescents’ stress, depression, and anxiety in school settings (Fulambarkar et al., 2023), stress management in the general population (Zhang et al., 2024), cognitive performance, emotional problems, stress and coping, resilience in school environment (Zenner et al., 2014), there has been no meta-analysis conducted specifically on the effects of MBSR practices on exam anxiety. This study is important because it is the first study to show that mindfulness-based interventions are effective in reducing students’ test anxiety. According to this research results, MBIs demonstrating a moderate to large negative effect on test anxiety. While supporting the conclusion, we inform that the findings related to publication bias should be taken into account when evaluating the results. Although Duval and Tweedie’s crop and fill method has not detected any missing studies, it is recommended to be careful in interpreting the meta-analytical results. Fulambarkar et al. (2023) conducted a met-analysis of mindfulness studies on adolescents’ stress, depression and anxiety levels in the school setting. As a result of the meta-analysis, the overall effect including stress, depression, and anxiety resulted in a significant improvement with a small effect size.

In a meta-analysis of mindfulness intervention on general anxiety of college students (Bamber and Morpeth, 2019), a certain high effect value was found in the group in which mindfulness meditation was applied compared to the control group. Although there is a meta-analysis on the effect of mindfulness interventions on general anxiety rather than exam anxiety, it was found important to be conducted on student population in order to compare the results.

Another meta-analysis on the effect of mindfulness interventions on the psychological health of children and adolescents (Kallapiran et al., 2015) includes 11 studies and according to the results, it was stated that the psychological health and life satisfaction of children and adolescents in the group with mindfulness intervention increased.

In prior meta-analyses, researchers studied the effects of MBIs on psychological distress and well-being, and attrition rates in university students and adolescents’ stress, depression, and anxiety in school settings (Fulambarkar et al., 2023; Alrashdi et al., 2024). There are other meta-analysis about mindfulness intervention effects on anxiety disorders, and anxiety symptoms in clinical and non-clinical samples (Zhihong et al., 2018; Fumero et al., 2020; Reangsing et al., 2023; Williams et al., 2023). Researchers reported that MBIs significantly reduced anxiety in both clinical and non- clinical samples in the youth population and reduced overall anxiety in adult clinical and non-clinical populations.

When the findings of our study were examined, it was found that mindfulness practices had a positive effect on reducing exam anxiety to a reasonable level. When the control and experimental groups of the studies included in the study were compared, it was found that mindfulness practices had a significant effect on reducing test anxiety of students at various levels. Each study’s impact is represented proportionally, reflecting its relative weight in the overall effect size calculation. In conclusion, the meta-analysis provides an evidence for the effectiveness of MBIs in diminishing test anxiety.

In the literature, there is no study examining the effects of MBIs on test anxiety. This study is considered to be the first meta-analysis of school-based MBIs on test anxiety in the academic field. It provides supportive evidence that students from various levels had reduced test anxiety after MBIs. There is a previous meta-analysis that investigated the effect of MBIs on the general anxiety of university students (Bamber and Morpeth, 2019) and the general ES findings of this study are consistent with the results of our meta-analysis study. Another review and meta-analysis is a school-based mindfulness study (Zenner et al., 2014), which included 19 studies and 1,348 students from Grade 1 to Grade 12. The findings of this meta-analysis are similar to ours. It was found that MBIs contributed positively to the psychological well-being of children and youth. And as similar to our study, heterogeneity calculated as high.

When the moderator variables in our study were examined (age, number of sessions, frequency of sessions and type of intervention), it was found that they did not mediate the effect level of mindfulness-based interventions. It is an important result that the studies conducted in a wide age range from middle school students to university students did not show a significant difference at the age level. While mindfulness-based interventions conducted with children and adolescents had significant effects in children but not in adolescents (Odgers and Jensen, 2020), other studies found that mindfulness interventions conducted with children and adolescents did not have any effect according to age (Zoogman et al., 2015; Kander et al., 2024). On the contrary, in other studies, age was found to be an important moderator (Dunning et al., 2019; Mettler et al., 2023). However, it is useful to emphasize at this point. Although these studies were based on mindfulness, they did not specifically examine its effects on test anxiety and investigated its effects on different variables such as mental health, wellbeing, psychological symptoms, academic achievement, impulsivity, and interpersonal relationships. Looking at the results of the meta-analysis, it can be stated that there is a need for a comprehensive research that reveals the effects of developmental levels as an important moderator. In addition, it should be noted that this study did not include children, but included an age range from middle school to university students and the average age was 18.93.

In this study, it was also observed that other moderator variables such as the number and frequency of sessions and the type of intervention (online or face-to-face) did not have a significant mediating effect of mindfulness-based interventions on test anxiety. This finding is consistent with some of the previous meta-analytic studies on the effects of mindfulness-based interventions (Zoogman et al., 2015; Kander et al., 2024). Previously, in a meta-analysis conducted with college students examining the effect of mindfulness on general anxiety, it was shown that the face-to-face and long-term mindfulness studies of MBIs increased the effectiveness (Bamber and Morpeth, 2019). However, in our study, we observed that these differences in practice did not reveal a significant effect. This may be the result of MBIs worked on general anxiety. This made us think that MBI is more effective in more specific problems and groups. We can say that MBIs are more effective in a specific state anxiety such as exam anxiety.

The findings of the study showed that mindfulness interventions reduced test anxiety in student groups at various levels, but since one of the main problems of meta-analysis studies is publication bias, it is necessary to consider the possibility of publication bias.

Implementing mindfulness-based interventions in schools helps students learn efficiently with mindfulness and then demonstrate what they have learned by controlling their anxiety. These interventions can also be beneficial for both students and teachers’ psychological resilience, psychological well-being, self-esteem and prevention of burn out.

One limitation in this meta-analysis is the small number of studies that met our inclusion criteria. Additionally, there was significant heterogeneity among studies.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

EY: Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. ZH: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. FT: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.