All you need is love: preliminary validation of a new test of 10 parenting competencies that predict good outcomes with young children

Abstract

Objectives:

The main objectives of this study were to provide preliminary evidence of the validity of a new online test of parenting competencies and to determine the relative value of 10 competencies that have been shown in empirical studies to be helpful in parenting.

Methods:

We examined data obtained from a diverse convenience sample of 16,986 parents in 133 countries (53.3% from the U.S.) who completed the new online parenting questionnaire. We employed a concurrent study design to assess the validity of the new instrument. In a double-blind procedure to assess content validity, 11 parenting professionals rated both the competencies and the questionnaire items. To assess criterion validity, we used regression analyses to examine the relationship between questionnaire scores and participants’ answers to questions about the quality of their relationship with their children, how highly they rated their own parenting ability, and the happiness, health, and success of their children.

Results:

Total scores were positively correlated with answers to our five criterion questions (p < 0.001), suggesting relatively strong criterion validity for the new questionnaire. Internal consistency reliability was also high. Regression analyses suggested that the competency we labeled Love and Affection was the best predictor of good outcomes with children and that the competency we called Safety was the least valuable of the 10. Effects were found for gender (with females slightly outscoring males), race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, number of children, and education level. Total scores were higher for parents who had had parenting training, and more training was associated with higher scores.

Conclusion:

The study supports the view that parenting can be broken down into measurable and trainable competencies and provides guidance regarding how such training should be conducted.

1 Introduction

The objectives of the present study were to (a) introduce and evaluate the Epstein Parenting Competencies Inventory (EPCI)—a new instrument the authors developed for assessing 10 behavioral competencies that past empirical research has shown to be associated with effective parenting, (b) analyze data from a large, international group of people who completed the English version of the EPCI online, (c) compare the relative value of the 10 competencies, and (d) analyze the data from a demographic perspective. By using a competencies approach, we provide both the public and practitioners with a practical tool for measuring and potentially improving parenting practices and outcomes.

A competencies approach to parenting is, we believe, consistent with the desire most parents have to be the best parents they can be. At this writing, Amazon.com lists more than 60,000 books on dieting but more than 70,000 books on how to parent. There are even books that do nothing but compare various approaches to parenting (e.g., Cohen, 2002; Gross-Loh, 2014; Hoefle, 2012). Unfortunately, relatively few parents rely on empirical studies to guide their parenting practices (Bornstein et al., 2010). Instead, most parents simply parent the way their own parents did (Civitas Initiative et al., 2000; Radey and Randolph, 2009; Sistler and Gottfried, 1990), or, in some cases, if they had had difficult childhoods, parent in ways they perceive as opposite to the practices of their parents (Kaufman and Zigler, 1993). Besides firsthand experiences, parents also rely on proximal social networks such as families and friends (Belsky et al., 1989; Civitas Initiative et al., 2000; Smith et al., 1994; Sparling and Lowman, 1983) before consulting external sources such as educational materials and professionals (Geboy, 1981).

Meanwhile, since research on parenting styles was first introduced in the 1960s (Baumrind, 1967, 1971; cf. Maccoby and Martin, 1983), an increasing body of empirical evidence has identified particular parenting styles that are associated with a variety of positive outcomes: better relationships between parents and their children (Cox and Harter, 2003; Steele and McKinney, 2019), healthier children (Arredondo et al., 2006; Fogelholm, 1999; Iotti et al., 2023), better socio-emotional development (Davidov and Grusec, 2006; Li et al., 2023), higher academic achievement (Baumrind et al., 2010; Malahat et al., 2019), and higher likeliness to engage in prosocial behavior (Iotti et al., 2023).

1.1 Instruments that assess parenting

Over the years, a number of instruments have been developed to measure various aspects of parenting styles, some inspired by the pioneering work of Diana Baumrind and her colleagues. Robinson et al. (1995) developed the 62-item Parenting Practices Questionnaire that measures parenting styles based on Baumrind’s three dimensions of parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Robinson et al. (1995) combined 80 items from Block’s (1965) Child-Rearing Practices Report with 53 newly-constructed items based on Baumrind’s work. One thousand two hundred and fifty-one parents of preschool and school-age children were given the 133-item questionnaire, the results of which were reduced using a factor analysis. A final count of 62 items were then categorized into factors corresponding to authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting, and significant correlations were found between parenting styles and desirable outcomes. According to the contextual model of parenting style and practices proposed by Darling and Steinberg (1993), parenting style “influences child development primarily through its moderating influence on the relationship between parenting practices and developmental outcomes” (p. 493). This model suggests that parenting style is predictive of specific practices that influence child development (cf. Abidin et al., 2022; Neel et al., 2018). The Revised Parents as a Social Context Questionnaire (Egeli et al., 2015), which identifies six attributes of parenting styles (Warmth, Rejection, Structure, Chaos, Autonomy Support, and Coercion), has also been used to study parenting outcomes.

Instruments also exist that look at parenting attitudes, such as the Parental Attitudes Toward Childrearing Questionnaire (Easterbrooks and Goldberg, 1984) and the Parenting Questionnaire (Budd et al., 2012, 2015). According to Holden and Edwards (1989), parental attitudes predict parenting practices, which are an important part of a child’s environment (cf. Francis and Filmore, 1934; Updegraff, 1939) and which play an important role in shaping a child’s behavior and personality (Symonds, 1949). Winder and Rau (1962) suggested that parental attitudes such as ambivalence, punitiveness, restrictiveness, and low maternal self-esteem are correlated with social deviance in boys.

Other instruments look more directly at parenting practices. The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Dadds et al., 2003) measures degree of interaction, positive parenting, degree of supervision, consistency of punishment, and the use of corporal punishment to predict the conduct of children. The Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire (Sleddens et al., 2014) assesses five main parenting constructs: Nurturance, Overprotection, Coercive Control, Behavioral Control, and Structure. The Mindfulness in Parenting Questionnaire (McCaffrey et al., 2016) measures mindful parenting practices that might improve the parent-child relationship through increased trust and decreased stress (cf. McKee et al., 2018).

Tests also exist that measure various aspects of parenting competence. The Parenting Sense of Competence Scale assesses (as one might expect) a parent’s sense of competence (Ohan et al., 2000; Rogers and Matthews, 2004). One project of special note that measured parenting competencies directly originated at Kansas State University (KSU) and was funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and KSU. A panel of four professors worked together to develop an evidence-based list of 29 critical parenting practices organized into six themes: (1) Care for Self, (2) Understand, (3) Guide, (4) Nurture, (5), Motivate, and (6) Advocate (Smith et al., 1994). Eighty-nine parenting specialists who were part of the USDA’s Cooperative Extension System—a non-credit educational system for farmers, ranchers, and others that the USDA has supported for more than a century—were then asked to weigh in on the parenting education model the panel had developed. The resulting National Extension Parenting Education Model (NEPEM) was thus developed by consensus, according to the authors. The model was summarized in a 88-page report published by the KSU’s Cooperative Education Service in 1994 (Smith et al., 1994), and a condensed version of that report was also published that year in a scholarly journal (Goddard et al., 1994). Shortly after, one of the members of the original panel, H. W. Goddard, and others published a brief paper describing a questionnaire—the Parent Self-Evaluation Instrument—that parents could use to rate how well their parenting practices matched those recommended by NEPEM (Edgmon et al., 1996).

We are not aware of studies designed to validate NEPEM. It was developed, however, by experts who relied on relevant studies available at the time, and thus the model has an empirical basis. The NEPEM-related questionnaire was never validated or widely adopted, as far as we are aware, but NEPEM itself has been used as a guide for developing parent education programs, and the effectiveness of some of those programs has been reported (Behrendt, 2009; Debord et al., 2006; Goddard and Marshall, 2006; Guin et al., 2018). NEPEM is relevant to the present study because it catalogs 29 parenting practices (sometimes referred to as “skills”) said to be helpful in producing positive parenting outcomes. Although NEPEM does not speak of competencies per se, the skill sets it describes overlap with the competencies that are evaluated and ranked in the present study. We summarize the overlap in Table 1. Thirteen of the 29 practices in NEPEM are well represented in the questionnaire that is the subject of the present study. Sixteen NEPEM practices are not represented (see endnote, Table 1). Depending on how one chooses to count them, our questionnaire contains between 58 and 75 items that are not represented in NEPEM, mainly because our questionnaire items pinpoint specific behaviors rather than make broad recommendations.

A third parent education program—the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program—has been in use in multiple countries since 1970 (see Triple, 2024), and its value has also been demonstrated empirically (Li et al., 2021; Nogueira et al., 2022; Sanders, 1999). It too can be viewed from a competencies perspective, and some of the practices it teaches also overlap with those in the present study. Triple P differs from our questionnaire and some of the other programs we have mentioned because it focuses mainly on children at risk (Li et al., 2021; cf. Spoth and Redmond, 1996). Triple P also charges for its products and services, whereas our questionnaire is a free online assessment.

1.2 Advantages of a competencies approach

Inspired in part by the work of David C. McClelland (1973) and others (e.g., Briscoe and Hall, 1999; Deming, 1982; Quinn et al., 1990), a competencies approach to assessment and training has long been common in the business community (e.g., Shippmann et al., 2000), the military (e.g., Zook, 2006), healthcare (e.g., Marrelli et al., 2005), education (e.g., Warn and Tranter, 2001), and other areas in which human performance is important (e.g., Epstein and Phan, 2012; Epstein et al., 2008, 2013a,b, 2016, 2022, 2024, 2025a,b).

A competencies approach is advantageous because it breaks down complex performances into a set of measurable, trainable skills (Markus et al., 2005). Because these skills are trainable, competency tests give people hope; however low someone’s current level of functioning, it can presumably be improved. Unlike instruments that measure personality traits, a competencies inventory avoids labeling people in ways that can demoralize or lead to a stereotype threat (Granello and Gibbs, 2016; Link, 1987; Miller, 2017; Steele and Aronson, 1995; Steele et al., 2002). In addition, a competencies approach emphasizes the empirical study of directly observable behavior; hypothetical constructs, which often guide inquiries in the behavioral sciences, cannot be directly observed.

The value of a competencies approach to parenting has been shown in a long-running program (since 1983) at Iowa State University developed by Spoth and Redmond (1996). This program has demonstrated the value of training both parenting and family competencies in multiple controlled studies (e.g., Becher et al., 2022; Molgaard et al., 2000; Spoth et al., 2008), focusing primarily on interventions affecting substance abuse in young adolescents. Because of that emphasis, the range of competencies has been tailored to families and young people at risk. That generally has meant focusing on a range of behavior management skills (e.g., consistent discipline, clear parental expectations, using consequences, child management practices), stress management (e.g., handling stress, emotional management skills), as well as on skills for improving the parent-child bond.

1.3 More recent approaches to parenting competence

In 2014, Brian Johnson and his colleagues proposed an empirically-based model of parenting competence, which they defined as the “learned ability to effectively rear children by performing requisite tasks using demonstrable knowledge, skills or abilities, practices or behaviors, attributes, attitudes, and clusters of these components (styles) associated with positive outcomes in children” (Johnson et al., 2014, p. 94, cf. Nexford Staff, 2024). Identifying trainable parenting competencies, they argued, will help to improve both parenting practices and outcomes. The Johnson et al. (2014) definition of “competencies” is the one we will employ in the present study. Note that under this definition, competencies is a broader concept than skills—one we find to be especially useful.

Our own effort to use a competencies approach to understanding parenting began in 2006 with a review of empirical studies suggesting that particular parenting competencies were associated with good outcomes with children. Our review yielded a set of 10 relatively distinct competencies, which we delineate in the Method section below (also see Table 2 for further details and references that demonstrate empirical support for each competency).

The model introduced by Johnson et al. (2014) is hierarchical; the structure of the EPCI is linear. Both are empirically-based, and there is considerable overlap in the competencies we delineated and those proposed by Johnson et al. (2014). Johnson’s sub-competency, “nurturance,” corresponds to our Love and Affection competency (Table 2). Both the Johnson model and the EPCI value the encouragement of autonomy and independence. Both also include behavior management (“behavioral guidance” in Johnson et al., 2014) as one of the competencies, emphasizing the need for discipline and positive reinforcement in encouraging positive behaviors in children.

Our review of relevant literature also suggested that building and maintaining relationships both within and outside the family is important for a child’s development; hence the inclusion of Relationship Skills in our model; similarly, Johnson et al. (2014) included “social network, social and friendship opportunity,” and “social skill instruction,” among their sub-competencies. Both models also included stress management, education, and safety and health among their competencies.

Johnson et al. (2014) presented a strong case for developing a competencies approach to understanding parenting. In the present study, we also attempt to do so in three ways. First, as noted above, we developed an instrument for measuring parenting competencies based on a review of relevant literature. Second, we used a “concurrent study” design (American Educational Research Association, 2014, p. 17) to evaluate some aspects of the reliability and validity of the testing instrument using data we obtained from a diverse sample of parents in multiple countries. Third, we used regression analyses to rank order our competencies according to how well they predicted a number of self-reported parenting outcomes.

The present study presents an analysis of data collected from the time the EPCI was first posted in 2007 through January 2026. Given the large sample of participants (N = 16,986), the diversity of the sample (133 countries), and the wide range of competencies evaluated on the questionnaire, we believe this analysis sheds new light on the importance of parenting competencies. The large sample size also allowed us to look at demographic differences in scores, as well as to use regression analyses to compare the relative importance of the competencies.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Ethics statement

The federally registered Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the sponsoring institution (American Institute for Behavioral Research and Technology) approved this study (protocol number 10011) with exempt status and a waiver of the requirement for informed consent under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) regulations [45 CFR 46.116(d), 45 CFR 46.117(c)(2), and 45 CFR 46.111] because (a) the anonymity of participants was preserved and (b) the risk to participants was minimal. The IRB is registered with the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) under number IRB00009303, and the Federalwide Assurance number for the IRB is FWA00021545.

2.2 Participants

Data were initially cleaned as follows: If an individual completed the questionnaire more than once in a single day (detectable from the date and time recorded for each test session), only the first set of results in which he or she answered at least half the questions was retained. No participants reported English fluency levels under 6 (on a scale from 1 to 10). Individuals who did not identify themselves as parents were removed from the data.

We started the cleaning process with a total of 17,912 participants. After cleaning, our dataset consisted of 16,986 online participants who had completed the EPCI between April 15, 2007 and January 7, 2026. A detailed breakdown of the sample by demographic characteristics is given in Table 3.

2.3 Study design and questionnaire construction

As noted earlier, to determine which competencies might contribute to parenting success, we first reviewed the relevant literature, seeking empirical papers that found associations between specific parenting practices, skills, abilities, and traits, and desirable parenting outcomes (cf. Moher et al., 2009). Our review at that time yielded a set of 10 relatively distinct competencies, which we labeled as follows: (1) Autonomy and Independence, (2) Behavior Management, (3) Education and Learning, (4) Healthy Lifestyle, (5) Life Skills, (6) Love and Affection, (7) Relationship Skills, (8) Religion and Spirituality, (9) Safety, and (10) Stress Management. Definitions and relevant references, which have been updated since the questionnaire was first posted in 2007, are given in Table 2.

Employing procedures developed by the first author in the development of other online tests (e.g., Epstein, 2000a,b; Epstein and Muzzatti, 2011; Epstein and Rogers, 2001; Epstein and Phan, 2012; Epstein et al., 2008, 2013a,b, 2016, 2017, 2022, 2023), we then generated test items derived from the findings of relevant studies. All test items used an agree/disagree format and a 5-point Likert scale.

The questionnaire was made publicly available online.¹ Over time, links to the questionnaire were posted at other websites, a process over which the authors had no control. The following sections detail each section of the EPCI and are ordered the same way that questionnaire content was presented to participants during their online experience.

2.3.1 Demographics

Participants were first presented with brief instructions informing them, among other things, that there were no right or wrong answers to the questions. They were then asked some basic demographic questions, including a question about race/ethnicity. We are aware that the terms “race” and “ethnicity” refer to different aspects of group differences and that the use of the term “race,” in particular, is often debated (see American Psychological Association, 2019; Causadias et al., 2018; Helms et al., 2005; Roberts et al., 2020; Yee, 2009). In our questionnaire, participants were asked to select one category under the heading “Race/Ethnicity,” and the options were American Indian, Asian, Black, Hispanic, White, and Other—categories used by the United States Census Bureau when the questionnaire was first posted. We are therefore using these categories in the present paper.

2.3.2 Success criteria

Following the demographic questions, participants were asked five criterion questions, the first four of which were about outcomes associated with successful parenting, namely: How happy have your children been? How healthy have your children been? How successful have your children been in school or work settings? How good has your relationship been with your children? The fifth criterion question measured participants’ self-reported parenting ability: How good of a parent do you think you are? Answers were given on 10-point Likert scales from Low to High.

2.3.3 Main questionnaire

After the five criterion questions, participants completed the 100-item questionnaire itself. The test consisted of 90 scored items (nine for each competency) plus 10 unscored “dummy” items (one for each competency), all of which were presented to participants in the same random order. Each dummy item was a close variant of one of the scored items; for example, one scored item in the Healthy Lifestyle competency was “I regularly take my child to the doctor and dentist for check-ups,” and its dummy variant was “I take my child in for medical check-ups on a regular basis.” The dummy items (1, 4, 30, 32, 36, 46, 56, 63, 69, and 70) were not scored. Dummy items were included to allow us to compute an “internal consistency score” (ICS) for each participant (see Supplementary Text 1 to see how we compute ICS).

Normally, the ICS allows us to identify participants who are responding inconsistently to questionnaire items, perhaps because of a lack of attention or language difficulties. When the ICS is below a certain value, participants can be asked to retake the questionnaire or can be eliminated from an analysis of data. In the present study, we did not ask any participants to retake the questionnaire, and we did not eliminate any participants from the analysis. We had no need to remove participants with low ICSs because even people with the lowest ICS values we found generated item scores with Cronbach alpha values exceeding 0.90. The usual minimum alpha value considered acceptable in evaluation studies is 0.70 (see alpha values in Supplementary Table 1; Bland and Altman, 1997; Cortina, 1993).

After completing the 100-item questionnaire itself, participants were given their overall score as well as scores on the 10 subscales and detailed explanations about the nature of each competency.

2.4 Independent ratings of content

Before the questionnaire was posted online, a recently retired professor of child and family development, assisted by the director of a parenting training program (see Acknowledgments) conducted a double-blind procedure on our behalf to evaluate the questionnaire content. She recruited 11 parenting experts in at least seven U.S. states; four of the 11 experts did not provide a location, but all were in the U.S. Five were licensed clinicians. On 10-point scales, each evaluator rated both the importance of the 10 competencies and the appropriateness of each of the 9 scored items within each competency (Table 4).

2.5 Statistical analysis plan

Because the EPCI is a new measurement instrument, we sought to evaluate some aspects of its reliability and validity. We estimated the EPCI’s internal consistency by using Cronbach’s Alpha and the Guttman Split-Half Test. Because the EPCI is an internet-based questionnaire, and because our IRB required that the participants take the EPCI anonymously, we did not have a way of evaluating test-retest reliability.

Our investigation employed a concurrent study design that provided convergent validity evidence with related measures, following the most recent guidelines of Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, jointly published by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the APA, and the National Council on Measurement in Education (American Educational Research Association, 2014). Specifically, as a preliminary measure of validity, we sought to measure the strength of the relationships between our questionnaire scores and the scores on five criterion questions. This design is called “concurrent” because we obtained test scores and criterion measures at the same time, a strategy that avoids possible temporal confounds. Results from studies employing this design are considered especially robust when the pattern of relationships between questionnaire scores and criterion measures proves to be consistent across different demographic groups (see Results). We also compared mean scores (using a Mann-Whitney U) between participants who reported having parenting training and those who did not. Presumably, if the EPCI is a valid measure of parenting competence, we should find a significant difference between the mean scores of people with training and those without.

Because questions on the EPCI use an ordinal scale, non-parametric statistics, such as Spearman’s ρ (for correlations), the Mann-Whitney U (for comparing two means), and the Kruskal-Wallis H (for comparing three or more means), are used throughout this report. Means and standard deviations are reported for comparison purposes, although the appropriateness of their use with ordinal data has long been debated (e.g., Lord, 1953; Townsend and Ashby, 1984). Questionnaire scores are always given as a percentage of the maximum possible raw score.

We used linear regression to assess which of our 10 parenting competencies best predicted answers to our five criterion questions. We also conducted demographic analyses by comparing mean scores of different demographic groups within the same demographic category. Because the data were collected over a period of 19 years, we also looked for changes in our data over time.

When reporting statistical significance, we followed the guidelines of the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association, 2020); we reported the actual p-value when that value was equal to or larger than 0.001; when the value was below 0.001, we reported p <0.001.

3 Results

3.1 Reliability and validity

Both the Cronbach’s alpha (0.97) and Guttman split-half (0.95) measures suggested that the EPCI has high internal-consistency reliability. Content validity was assessed using the double-blind procedure described above (see Table 4). Love and Affection was rated the most important competency by the independent evaluators (M = 9.6, SD = 0.9), and Religion and Spirituality was rated the least important competency (M = 6.5, SD = 3.2). The mean importance rating for all competencies was 8.5 (SD = 1.2), and the mean appropriateness rating for the items was 8.3 (SD = 1.1).

Again, because our IRB required us to maintain the anonymity of our participants, we did not have a way to contact our participants to ask them to complete an additional questionnaire to compare our questionnaire scores to as a measure of convergent validity. Following AERA guidelines, validity evidence was obtained by calculating the correlations between total scores and the answers to our five criterion questions. All five of our criterion measures were positively correlated with total scores, with the correlation for quality of the relationship with the children especially high (ρ = 0.45, p < 0.001) (Table 5).

Two of our measures of parenting training also provide validity evidence: First, people who reported having had such training scored significantly higher on the questionnaire than people who did not [M_yes = 83.0 (SD = 11.4), M_no = 79.2 (13.1), U = 24,502, 725.50, p <0.001, r = 0.15]. Second, the number of training hours people reported was positively correlated with their total score on the questionnaire (ρ = 0.11, p < 0.001).

3.2 Regression analysis

The relative predictive value of the 10 competencies was assessed using linear regression (Tables 6, 7). Love and Affection proved to be the best predictor of two of the criterion variables: Relationship with Children, and Happiness of Children. Stress Management proved to be the best predictor of Parenting Ability. Success of Children was best predicted by the Education and Learning competency. Health of Children was best predicted by the Healthy Lifestyle competency. Safety made significant negative contributions in four of the regressions (standardized betas: β_Relationship = −0.18, β_Happiness = −0.13, β_Parenting = −0.22, and β_Success = −0.07) and did not make significant positive contributions in any of the regressions (Note: Using the language of prediction here in the context of regression analysis is not meant to imply causal relationships among the variables).

Table 8 compares the ranking of the 10 competencies according to questionnaire scores, expert scores, and regression betas. It suggests that there is a mismatch in some cases between the level of competence parents actually have (Mean Questionnaire Scores) and the value of those competencies as determined by experts and/or regression analyses. The most dramatic mismatch is for the Safety competency, which parents generally excel in but which may have little value and might even be harmful (Ganaprakasam et al., 2023; Gray et al., 2023; Perry et al., 2018; Salmin et al., 2021; Suarex-Morales and Harris, 2023; Zhang and Wang, 2024). Note that we did not ask parents to rate their competencies in the 10 categories measured by the questionnaire, so we have no way of comparing perceived competence with the questionnaire scores, expert scores, or regression betas.

3.3 Demographic analyses

Demographic effects are shown in detail in Tables 3, 9. Here is a summary of these findings: First, getting older was not associated with higher questionnaire scores (U = 35,077, 475.50, p = 0.176 NS, r = 0.01). Second, having three or more children was associated with higher scores (U = 30,690, 290.00, p = 0.007, r = 0.02). Third, participants from the U.S. outscored people in other countries, but the effect size was small (U = 19,392, 925.00, p < 0.001, r = 0.08). This difference might have occurred because participants from the U.S. reported a higher mean English fluency than people outside the U.S. The correlation between fluency level and total scores on the questionnaire was 0.15 (p < 0.001). Fourth, we found an effect for level of education (H = 11.84, p = 0.037, E²_R = 0.001), but higher levels of education were not consistently associated with higher questionnaire scores.

Fifth, we found an effect for race/ethnicity, with Asian parents scoring lower than non-Asian parents (U = 5,480,080.50, p <0.001, r = 0.04), perhaps because of the ways in which some Asian cultures differ from non-Asian cultures (see Discussion). Once again, the effect size here was small; we acknowledge that in a large-N study like the present one, a highly significant p-value is not necessarily indicative of a meaningful difference (Krueger and Heck, 2019). Sixth, we found an effect for sexual orientation, with self-labeled straights scoring higher than participants who did not label themselves as straight (U = 6,801,914.00, p <0.001, r = 0.04).

Seventh, we found an overall effect for gender (males vs. females vs. other) (H = 68.77, p <0.001, E²_R = 0.004), with females outscoring males in a pairwise comparison (U = 24,208,605.50, p <0.001, r = 0.06). Eighth, in response to our question about self-perceived parenting ability, males rated their ability higher than females did (U = 24,154, 750.00, p <0.001, r = 0.05), but the effect size was small. Ninth, females reported having a better relationship with their children than males reported (U = 25,268, 112.50, p <0.01, r = 0.02). And tenth, although one might expect that people who had married were more competent as parents than people who had never married, we found no clear relationship between marital history and parenting ability (U = 24,125, 214.50, p = 0.536 NS, r = 0.00).

3.4 Changes over time

Although mean total scores on the questionnaire changed significantly over time, we also found that key demographic characteristics changed significantly from year to year (Table 10), presumably because of our inability to control which websites linked to our questionnaire. Dividing the sample into two segments of approximately equal size by date (before and after December 27, 2012, n_before = 8,493, n_after = 8,492), we found a significant difference in mean total scores for these two time periods, but the absolute difference in scores was small (0.5 percentage points), and so was the effect size [M_before = 80.6 (10.5), M_after = 80.1 (14.6), U = 34,427, 480.00, p < 0.001, r = 0.04]. This suggests that our overall findings are generally applicable over most or all of the long period of data collection.

4 Discussion

4.1 Major findings

The present study suggests that the EPCI has value in measuring a wide range of competencies that are associated with good parenting outcomes. It also confirms, with data collected from a highly diverse group of people, the value that a competencies approach has to understanding and improving parenting practices, skills, and attitudes.

For validation purposes, our study relied on guidelines from the most recent edition of Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association, 2014) for employing a “concurrent study design,” that is, one in which the strength of association between test scores and the answers to various criterion questions is measured; this measure is often called “criterion-related validity.” In the present study, all five of those associations were positive and significant at the 0.001 level, and the mean test score was an especially good predictor of the quality of the relationship parents reported having with their children. We also assessed content validity by conducting a double-blind assessment of our questionnaire’s content, with generally encouraging results (Table 4). That said, because this was an internet study in which we were required to preserve the anonymity of the participants, we could not assess other traditional forms of test validity, such as concurrent validity or predictive validity (Anastasi and Urbina, 2016); accordingly, we consider the validity evidence presented in this report to be preliminary.

Our regression analyses confirmed a traditional belief about parenting but also supported some new ideas. By far, the best predictor of good parenting outcomes was the Love and Affection competency, so perhaps John Lennon was right when he sang “all you need is love.” This competency was the best predictor of the two outcomes that many parents value a great deal: their children’s happiness and the quality of the relationship they have with their children (Hurst et al., 2023; Stearns, 2019). The Love competency was also the second best predictor of two of the three remaining criterion variables: children’s health and self-reported parenting ability. Love and Affection was also ranked highest by our parenting experts in our content validity study, and, fortunately, it ranked second among the competencies parents actually have; parents scored an impressive 87.0% on this competency (Table 11). This is good news, and this general finding about the importance of parents expressing love and affection to their children is also consistent with the findings of other studies (Faber, 2002; Johnson et al., 2006; Schrodt et al., 2007; Smith et al., 1994).

Parents scored highest on the Safety competency (87.7%, Table 11), perhaps a reflection of the overprotectiveness that has come to characterize modern parenting, at least in the U.S. (Odenweller et al., 2014; Ungar, 2009; Valentine, 2004). Unfortunately, Safety ranked poorly in our study in several respects. It was ranked sixth by our experts (Table 8), and, as we noted earlier, it appeared to be harmful in four of our five regressions. Other studies have suggested why an excessive concern with safety might be harmful in parenting (Ganaprakasam et al., 2023; Gray et al., 2023; Perry et al., 2018; Salmin et al., 2021; Suarex-Morales and Harris, 2023; Zhang and Wang, 2024).

Two other competencies that fared poorly in the study also deserve some mention. Our experts ranked Religion and Spirituality lowest among the competencies; its mean rating was only 6.5 (Table 4). It was, in fact, the only competency that provoked negative written comments from our blind reviewers, two of whom recommended that we omit this competency entirely, even though we had found studies suggesting its value (Table 2). Even more surprising—especially to the first author of this study, who was the last doctoral student of behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner—was the fate of the competency we called Behavior Management. It ranked seventh among parenting scores, ninth among our experts, and seventh in our regressions. Skinner would have viewed such a finding to be “puzzling.”

Our methodology allowed us to collect data from a large and diverse sample of English-speaking people around the world; the shifting demographics year after year contributed greatly to the diversity of the sample (although see the Limitations section below). There is also a growing and substantive literature suggesting that people are particularly honest when answering questions about themselves anonymously online, especially when they are being asked about sensitive issues such as parenting ability (Corrigan, 2004; Dillman et al., 2014; Durant et al., 2002; Dwight and Fiegelson, 2000; Joinson, 1999; Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2009; Krumpal, 2013; Manderscheid et al., 2010; Ong and Weiss, 2000; Robertson et al., 2017; Trau et al., 2013; Villarroel et al., 2006; cf. Reips, 2012). Presumably, because parents were taking the EPCI out of curiosity rather than out of necessity, it seems unlikely that they were inflating their scores to impress peers or authorities.

Our demographic analyses provided support for some common beliefs about parenting but also yielded some surprises. The commonly held belief that females are better parents than men are, for example, was modestly supported by our data (cf. Abraham et al., 2014; Kinsley et al., 2006). The difference we found between the mean scores for males and females was statistically significant, but the absolute difference was small (females outscored males by 2.0%), and so was the effect size (r = 0.06). Men, moreover, rated their parenting ability slightly higher than women rated their own parenting ability, whereas women judged the quality of their relationship with their children to be better than the quality of the relationship men reported with their children (Table 9).

Another common belief is that women produce better parenting outcomes; in our study, however, gender appeared to make no difference in parenting outcomes (e.g., self-reported happiness, health, and success of children) (Table 9). Notably, 75.5% of our participants were female (Table 3), which suggests that female internet users have a stronger interest in parenting issues than do male internet users. In general, females are also more likely to participate in research than men (Curtin et al., 2000; Moore and Tarnai, 2002; Singer et al., 2000; Smith, 2008).

Our study also confirmed the value of parenting training (e.g., Adler-Baeder et al., 2018; Becher et al., 2022; Chacko et al., 2013; Wolford and Holtrop, 2020). As noted, participants in our study who had had such training scored significantly higher on our questionnaire than people who had not had such training, and questionnaire scores were positively correlated with the number of training hours.

Some segments of the American public have long voiced the view that gay and lesbian individuals make poor parents. Our study supports the findings of other recent studies that dispel this myth (e.g., Bos et al., 2018; Farr et al., 2010; Stacey and Biblarz, 2001). Gay and lesbian participants scored the same as straight participants on our questionnaire (Table 3), and they also produced similarly positive parenting outcomes (Table 9).

Regarding race and ethnicity, Asians scored somewhat lower than non-Asians did, perhaps because some Asian cultures encourage an authoritarian style of parenting (Chiu, 1987; Cui et al., 2021; Detzer et al., 1999; Kelley and Tseng, 1992; cf. Hwang et al., 2023; King et al., 2016; Pinquart, 2017). Foreign-born Asian mothers in the U.S. might also be subject to a high degree of stress (DeLambo et al., 2011; Nomaguchi and House, 2013), which can also affect parenting adversely (Trute and Hiebert-Murphy, 2002).

We have been in the process in recent years of expanding our analysis of parenting skills by looking more carefully at cultural differences. In 2017 and 2018, and working in collaboration with the ALIAT Association for Mental Health in Bucharest, Romania, we posted translations of the EPCI in six non-English languages (Croatian, Italian, Polish, Romanian, Spanish, and Turkish). We are currently in the process of analyzing our new data by comparing both language and country differences in scores obtained by a diverse group of people who completed the questionnaire in their native languages.

4.2 Limitations

The main limitations of the study are as follows: First, all five of the parenting outcomes we measured were self-reported. Second, because this was an internet study that assured people’s anonymity, we were limited in how we could collect both reliability and validity evidence, and we thus remind the reader about the preliminary nature of our validation. Third, the 10 competencies we measured should not be considered a definitive list; we were constrained by relevant literature when the questionnaire was designed. Fourth, 28.0% of the participants in the study were from 132 countries outside the U.S, and we had no country data from 18.7% of the participants. The EPCI itself was derived from studies conducted mainly in the U.S.; its applicability to countries outside the U.S. is unclear, and we made no attempt in this study to examine our data from a cultural perspective, mainly because we had relatively few people in any one country outside the U.S. Although comparative analyses of this sort could be conducted using an instrument like the EPCI, the present study did not provide enough data to attempt such analyses.

Fifth, we had no control over the nature of our sample; not only were participants self-selected, but the makeup of our sample changed over time (Table 10), presumably because links to our online questionnaire kept changing. One might speculate that an online parenting questionnaire would attract parents who were worried about their parenting skills. In fact, 60.5% of our participants scored 8 or above on self-reported parenting ability, and only 4.9% of our participants gave themselves a score below 5. We know from demographic characteristics alone that our sample was unrepresentative in some respects, and we therefore cannot say with any degree of confidence that our sample was representative of parents in general. Of our participants, 57.8% had 4-year college degrees or graduate degrees, for example; in the U.S., only 35.8% of the adult population has such degrees (United States Census Bureau, 2025). Similarly, only 24.2% of our participants were male, and the men who responded to our questionnaire might differ in non-trivial ways from the population of fathers in general.

4.3 Implications for practice, application, and policy

Good parenting is important for children, families, and society (Baumrind, 1967; Baumrind et al., 2010; Coleman, 1988; Johnson et al., 2006; Kawachi et al., 2008; Marchant et al., 2004). The present study provides preliminary support for the potential value of a competencies approach to parenting, very much in the spirit of the position developed by Spoth and Redmond (1996), as well as by Johnson et al. (2014), who argued that “the time is propitious to begin the discussion of what competent parenting entails” (p. 108). Because the present study also suggests the relative importance of different parenting competencies, it might prove useful both in informing the ongoing discussion about parenting competencies and for guiding future research on ways to improve programs designed to improve parenting practices.

Our findings suggest in particular that after the expression of love and affection, certain practices may have special value in parenting: managing stress, promoting learning and education, promoting autonomy and independence, learning life skills, and maintaining a constructive relationship with one’s partner, spouse, or co-parent. Additionally, our results are consistent with previous research highlighting the value of parenting training, and it suggests the potential value that parenting competencies could have in producing good parenting outcomes: the happiness, health and success of children, as well as the quality of the relationship parents have with their children. Future research should aim to measure other aspects of the EPCI’s reliability and validity, while also testing the replicability of the findings in this study. Because parenting competencies can be both measured and trained, we believe that a competencies approach to parenting may be worthy of future consideration when developing parenting programs and during related discussions surrounding public policy.

References

• 1

  AbidinF. A.YudianaW.FadilahS. H. (2022). Parenting style and emotional well-being among adolescents: the role of basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration.Front. Psychol.13:901646. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901646

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 2

  AbrahamE.HendlerT.Shapira-LichterI.Kanat-MaymonY.Zagoory-SharonO.FeldmanR. (2014). Father’s brain is sensitive to childcare experiences.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.1119792–9797. 10.1073/pnas.1402569111

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 3

  Adler-BaederF.GarneauC.VaughnB.McGillJ.HarcourtK. T.KetringS.et al. (2018). The effects of mother participation in relationship education on coparenting, parenting, and child social competence: Modeling spillover effects for low-income minority preschool children.Fam. Proc.57113–130. 10.1111/famp.12267

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 4

  American Educational Research Association (2014). Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing.Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 5

  American Psychological Association (2019). APA Guidelines on Race and Ethnicity in Psychology.Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 6

  American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th Edn. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. 10.1037/0000165-000

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 7

  AnastasiA.UrbinaS. (2016). Psychological Testing, 7th Edn. London: Pearson.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 8

  ArchibaldA. B.LinverM. R.GraberJ. A.Brooks-GunnJ. (2002). Parent-adolescent relationships and girls’ unhealthy eating: testing reciprocal relationships.J. Res. Adolesc.12451–461. 10.1111/1532-7795.00041

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 9

  ArredondoE. M.ElderJ. P.AyalaG. X.CampbellN.BaqueroB.DuerksenS. (2006). Is parenting style related to children’s healthy eating and physical activity in Latino families?Health Educ. Res.21862–871. 10.1093/her/cyl110

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 10

  AteahC. A. (2003). Disciplinary practices with children: parental sources of information, attitudes, and educational needs.Issues Compr. Pediatr. Nurs.26:89. 10.1080/01460860390197853

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 11

  BanksJ. B. (2002). Childhood discipline: challenges for clinicians and parents.Am. Family Phys.661447–1453. 10.1016/j.chipro.2025.100129

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 12

  BaumrindD. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior.Genet. Psychol. Monogr.7543–88.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 13

  BaumrindD. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority.Dev. Psychol. Monogr.4(Pt.2), 1–103. 10.1037/h0030372

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 14

  BaumrindD.LarzelereR. E.OwensE. B. (2010). Effects of preschool parents’ power assertive patterns and practices on adolescent development.Parenting10157–201. 10.1080/15295190903290790

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 15

  BecherE.LimS.McguireJ.PowellS.McCannE.CroninS.et al. (2022). Divorce and predictors of child outcomes: the impact of divorce education, parenting, coparenting, and adult quality of life.Fam. Sci. Rev.26:20. 10.26536/KCGI5128

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 16

  BehrendtL. (2009). It takes a village: assets for parent education.Fam. Sci. Rev.1446–60.

  • Google Scholar

• 17

  BelskyJ.YoungbladeE.PenskyE. (1989). Childrearing history, marital quality, and maternal affect: intergenerational transmission in a low-risk sample.Dev. Psychopathol.1291–304. 10.1017/S0954579400000481

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 18

  Benito-GomezM.WilliamsK. N.McCurdyA.FletcherA. C. (2020). Autonomy-supportive parenting in adolescence: cultural variability in the contemporary United States.J. Fam. Theory Rev.127–26. 10.1111/jftr.12362

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 19

  BenziesK. M.HarrisonM. J.Magill-EvansJ. (2004). Parenting stress, marital quality, and child behavior problems at age 7 years.Public Health Nurs.21111–121. 10.1111/j.0737-1209.2004.021204.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 20

  BirchL. L.DavisonK. K. (2001). Family environmental factors influencing the developing behavioral controls of food intake and childhood overweight.Pediatr. Clin. North Am.48893–907. 10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70347-3

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 21

  BlackC. F. D. (2022). Partner emotional support and child problem behaviors: the indirect role of harsh parenting for young mothers and their children.Fam. Process61375–390. 10.1111/famp.12663

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 22

  BlandJ. M.AltmanD. G. (1997). Statstics notes: cronbach’s alpha.Br. Med. J.314:572. 10.1136/bmj.314.7080.572

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 23

  BlockJ. H. (1965). The Child-Rearing Practices Report (CRPR): A Set of Q items for the Description of Parental Socialization Attitudes and Values.Berkeley, CA: University of California.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 24

  BombiA. S.Di NorciaA.Di GuintaL.PastorelliC.LansfordJ. E. (2015). Parenting practices and child misbehavior: a mixed-method study of Italian mothers and children.Parenting15207–228. 10.1080/15295192.2015.1053326

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 25

  BornsteinM. H.CoteL. R.HaynesO. M.HahnC.ParkY. (2010). Parenting knowledge: experimental and sociodemographic factors in European American mothers of young children.Dev. Psychol.461677–1693. 10.1080/15295192.2011.585568

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 26

  BosH. M. W.KuyperL.GartrellN. K. (2018). A population-based comparison of female and male same-sex parent and different-sex parent households.Fam. Process57148–164. 10.1111/famp.12278

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 27

  BreitensteinS. M.GrossD.FoggL.RidgeA.GarveyC.JulionW.et al. (2012). The Chicago parent program: comparing 1-year outcomes for African American and Latino parents of young children.Res. Nurs. Health35475–489. 10.1002/nur.21489

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 28

  BriscoeJ.HallD. (1999). Grooming and picking leaders using competency frameworks: Do they work? An alternative approach and new guidelines for practice.Organ. Dyn.2837–52. 10.1016/S0090-2616(00)80015-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 29

  BronsteinP.DuncanP.D’AriA.PieniadzJ.FitzgeraldM.AbramsC. L.et al. (1996). Family and parenting behaviors predicting middle school adjustment: a longitudinal study.Fam. Relat.45415–426. 10.2307/585171

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 30

  BuddK. S.BehlingS.LiY.ParikshakS.GershensonR.FeuerR.et al. (2012). Measuring attitudes toward acceptable and unacceptable parenting practices.J. Child Fam. Stud.21247–296. 10.1007/s10826-011-9470-3

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 31

  BuddK. S.DankoC. M.LiY.HenriquezS. (2015). Assessing childrearing attitudes: validation of a shortened version of the Parenting Questionnaire.Parenting1539–54. 10.1080/15295192.2015.992737

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 32

  Cabecinha-AlatiS.MalikinH.MontreuilT. C. (2020). Emotion regulation and personality as predictors of mothers’ emotion socialization practices.Fam. Relat.691055–1072. 10.1111/fare.12501

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 33

  CausadiasJ. M.VitriolJ. A.AtkinA. L. (2018). Do we overemphasize the role of culture in the behavior of racial/ ethnic minorities? Evidence of cultural (mis)attribution bias in American Psychology.Am. Psychol.73243–255. 10.1037/amp0000099

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 34

  ChackoA.UdermanJ. Z.ZwillingA. (2013). Lessons learned in enhancing behavioral parent training for high-risk families of youth with ADHD.ADHD Rep.216–11. 10.1521/adhd.2013.21.4.6

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 35

  ChiuL. H. (1987). Child-rearing attitudes of Chinese, Chinese-American, and Anglo-American mothers.Int. J. Psychol.22409–419. 10.1080/00207598708246782

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 36

  ChoiJ.-K.BecherE. H. (2019). Supportive coparenting, parenting stress, harsh parenting, and child behavior problems in nonmarital families.Fam. Process58404–417. 10.1111/famp.12373

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 37

  Civitas Initiative, Zero to Three, and Brio Corporation. (2000). What Grown-Ups Understand about Child Development: A National Benchmark Survey.Chennai: Zero to Three.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 38

  ClevelandM. J.GibbonsF. X.GerrardM.PomeryE. A.BrodyG. H. (2005). The impact of parenting on risk cognitions and risk behavior: a study of mediation and moderation in a panel of African American adolescents.Child Dev.76900–916. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00885.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 39

  ClineF.FayJ. (2014). Parenting with Love and Logic: Teaching Children Responsibility.Cambridge: Tyndale House.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 40

  CohenL. J. (2002). Playful Parenting.New York, NY: Penguin Random House.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 41

  ColemanJ. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital.Am. J. Sociol.94S95–S120. 10.1086/228943

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 42

  CorriganP. (2004). How stigma interferes with mental health care.Am. Psychol.59:614. 10.1037/0003-066X.59.7.614

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 43

  CortinaJ. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications.J. Appl. Psychol.7898–104. 10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.98

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 44

  CowanP. A.CowanC. P.PruettM. K.PruettK. (2019). Fathers’ and mothers’ attachment styles, couple conflict, parenting quality, and children’s behavior problems: an intervention test of mediation.Attach. Hum. Dev.21532–550. 10.1080/14616734.2019.1582600

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 45

  CoxM. J.HarterK. S. M. (2003). “Parent-child relationships,” in Well-being: Positive Development Across the Life Course, edsBornsteinM.et al. (Hoboken, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), 191–204.

  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 46

  CuiL.ZhangX.HanZ. R. (2021). Perceived child difficultness, emotion dysregulation, and emotion-related parenting among Chinese parents.Fam. Proc.601403–1417. 10.1111/famp.12638

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 47

  CumellaS.GrattanE.VostanisP. (1998). The mental health of children in homeless families and their contact with health, education and social services.Health Soc. Care Commun.6331–342. 10.1046/j.1365-2524.1998.00139.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 48

  CurtinR.PresserS.SingerE. (2000). The effects of response rate changes on the index of consumer sentiment.Public Opin. Q.64413–428. 10.1086/318638

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar
  • View reference in article

• 49

  DaddsM. R.MaujeanA.FraserJ. A. (2003). Parenting and conduct problems in children: Australian data and psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire.Aust. Psychol.38238–241. 10.1080/00050060310001707267

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 50

  DalyK. J. (1996). Spending time with the kids: meanings of family time for fathers.Fam. Relat.45466–476. 10.2307/585177

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 51

  DarlingN.SteinbergL. (1993). Parenting style as context: an integrative model.Psychol. Bull.1113487–496. 10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.487

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 52

  DavidovM.GrusecJ. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes.Child Dev.7744–58. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00855.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 53

  DebordK.BowerD.GoddardH.WilkinsJ. K.KobbeA.-M.Myers-WallsJ. A.et al. (2006). A professional guide for parenting educators: the national extension parenting educators’ framework.J. Extension44115–129. 10.66752/1077-5315.4454

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 54

  DeLamboD.ChungW.HuangW. (2011). Stress and age: a comparison of Asian American and non-Asian parents of children with developmental disabilities.J. Dev. Phys. Disabil.23129–141. 10.1007/s10882-010-9211-3

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 55

  DemingE. W. (1982). Out of the Crisis.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  • Google Scholar

• 56

  DetzerD.XiongB.EliasonP. A. (1999). Background on Southeast Asian parenting. Helping Youth Succeed: Bicultural Parenting for Southeast Asian Families Facilitator Manual.1–7.

  • Google Scholar

• 57

  DillmanD. A.SmythJ. D.ChristianL. M. (2014). Internet, Phone, Mail, and Mixed-Mode Surveys: The Tailored Design Method.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

  • Google Scholar

• 58

  DottererA. M.IrukaI. U.PungelloE. (2012). Parenting, race, and socioeconomic status: links to school readiness.Fam. Relat.61657–670. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00716.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 59

  DurantL. E.CareyM. P.SchroderK. E. E. (2002). Effects of anonymity, gender, and erotophilia on the quality of data obtained from self-reports of socially sensitive behaviors.J. Behav. Med.25438–467. 10.1023/A:1020419023766

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 60

  DwightS. A.FiegelsonM. E. (2000). A quantitative review of the effect of computerized testing on the measurement of social desirability.Educ. Psychol. Meas.60340–360. 10.1177/00131640021970583

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 61

  EasterbrooksM. A.GoldbergW. A. (1984). Toddler development in the family: impact of father involvement and parenting characteristics.Child Dev.55740–752. 10.2307/1130126

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 62

  EdgmonK.GoddardH.SolheimC.WhiteM. (1996). Development of the parent self-evaluation instrument.Psychol. Rep.79643–646. 10.2466/pr0.1996.79.2.643

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 63

  EgeliN. A.RogersT.RinaldiC. M.CuiY. (2015). Exploring the factor structure of the revised-parent as a social context questionnaire.Parenting15269–287. 10.1080/15295192.2015.1053334

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 64

  EpsteinR. (2000a). The Big Book of Creativity Games.Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill.

  • Google Scholar

• 65

  EpsteinR. (2000b). The Big Book of Stress-Relief Games.Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill.

  • Google Scholar

• 66

  EpsteinR.AceretJ.GiordaniC.ZankichV. R.ZhangL. (2024). How stress is best managed: a rank ordering and analysis of four cognitive-behavioral competencies.Sci. Rep.14:19224. 10.1038/s41598-024-68328-4

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 67

  EpsteinR.GodoyS.WangN.NewlandA. (2025a). A rank ordering and analysis of nine resilience competencies demonstrates the special importance of thought management in maintaining resilience.Sci. Rep.16:904. 10.1038/s41598-025-30555-8

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 68

  EpsteinR.MeiK. X.NewlandA.RiveraL.SinghiS.WangN. (2025b). Which assertiveness skills count most? Assessing assertiveness, passiveness, and aggressiveness with a large online sample.Psychol. Rep.1–30. 10.1177/00332941251340307

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 69

  EpsteinR.HoM.HyunS.LeC.RobertsonR. E.StoutD. (2017). A DSM-5-based online mental health referral inventory: a large-scale validation study.J. Technol. Hum. Serv.35231–246. 10.1080/15228835.2017.1356800

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 70

  EpsteinR.HoM. E.ScandalisZ.GintherA. (2022). The motivation competencies that count most: an online international study.Open Psychol. J.15. 10.2174/18743501-v15-e2202030

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 71

  EpsteinR.KaminakaK.PhanV.UdaR. (2013a). How is creativity best managed?Creat. Innovat. Manage.22359–374. 10.1111/caim.12042

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 72

  EpsteinR.WangH.ZankichV. R. (2023). Is everyone a mix of straight and gay? A social pressure theory of sexual orientation, with supporting data from a large global sample.Front. Psychol.14. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1187377

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 73

  EpsteinR.WarfelR.JohnsonJ.SmithR.McKinneyP. (2013b). Which relationship skills count most?J. Couple Relat. Therapy12297–313. 10.1080/15332691.2013.836047

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 74

  EpsteinR.MuzzattiL. (2011). Preliminary validation of an online DSM-based mental health referral inventory.J. Technol. Hum. Serv.29284–295. 10.1080/15228835.2011.638421

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 75

  EpsteinR.PhanV. (2012). Which competencies are most important for creative expression?Creat. Res. J.24278–282. 10.1080/10400419.2012.726579

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 76

  EpsteinR.RobertsonR. E.SmithR.VasconcellosT.LaoM. (2016). Which relationship skills count most? A large-scale follow-up study.J. Couple Relat. Therapy15341–356. 10.1080/15332691.2016.1141136

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 77

  EpsteinR.RogersJ. (2001). The Big Book of Motivation Games.Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill.

  • Google Scholar

• 78

  EpsteinR.SchmidtS. M.WarfelR. (2008). Measuring and training creativity competencies: validation of a new test.Creat. Res. J.207–12. 10.1080/10400410701839876

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 79

  FaberA. J. (2002). The role of hierarchy in parental nurturance.Am. J. Family Ther.3073–84. 10.1080/019261802753455660

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 80

  FarrR. H.ForssellS. L.PattersonC. J. (2010). Parenting and child development in adoptive families: Does parental sexual orientation matter?Appl. Dev. Sci.14164–178. 10.1080/10888691.2010.500958

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 81

  FavezN.MaxA.BaderM.TissotH. (2022). When not teaming up puts parents at risk: coparenting and parental burnout in dual-parent heterosexual families in Switzerland.Family Process621–15. 10.1111/famp.12777

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 82

  FlouriE. (2004). Psychological outcomes in mid-adulthood associated with mother’s child-rearing attitudes in early childhood: evidence from the 1970 British birth cohort.Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry1335–41. 10.1007/s00787-004-0355-5

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 83

  FogelholmM. (1999). Micronutrients: interaction between physical activity, intakes and requirements.Public Health Nutr.2349–356. 10.1017/S1368980099000476

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 84

  FrancisK. V.FilmoreE. A. (1934). The influence of environment upon the personality of children.Univ. Iowa Stud. Child Welfare91–71.

  • Google Scholar

• 85

  FrenchD. C.EisenbergN.VaughanJ.PurwonoU.SuryantiT. A. (2008). Religious involvement and the social competence and adjustment of Indonesian Muslim adolescents.Dev. Psychol.44597–611. 10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.597

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 86

  GanaprakasamC.HumayraS.GanasegaranK.HashimH. A.ArmathlingamS. (2023). Anxious child: the association between helicopter parenting and anxiety among primary school students in Kedah, Malaysia.J. Psikologi Malaysia3784–99.

  • Google Scholar

• 87

  GeboyM. J. (1981). Who is listening to the experts? The use of child care material by parents.Family Relat.30205–210. 10.2307/584132

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 88

  GerardsS. M. P. L.KremersS. P. J. (2015). The role of food parenting skills and the home food environment in children’s weight gain and obesity.Curr. Obesity Rep.430–36. 10.1007/s13679-015-0139-x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 89

  GoddardH.MarshallJ. (2006). The parenting journey: using the best of print and electronic resources to train parents.J. Teach. Marr. Fam.681–99.

  • Google Scholar

• 90

  GoddardH. W.SmithC. A.Myers-WallsJ. A.CudabackD. (1994). A national model for parent education: practices and empirical bases.Fam. Sci. Rev.779–92.

  • Google Scholar

• 91

  GodinaL. (2014). Religion and parenting: ignored relationship?Child Fam. Soc. Work19381–390. 10.1111/cfs.12054

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 92

  GordonM. S.CuiM. (2012). The effect of school-specific parenting processes on academic achievement in adolescence and young adulthood.Family Relat.61728–741. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00733.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 93

  GranelloD. H.GibbsT. A. (2016). The power of language and labels: “The mentally ill” versus “people with mental illnesses.”.J. Counsel. Dev.9431–40. 10.1002/jcad.12059

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 94

  GrayP.LancyD. F.BjorklundD. F. (2023). Decline in independent activity as a cause of decline in children’s mental well-being: summary of evidence.J. Pediatr.260:113352. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2023.02.004

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 95

  GrolnickW. S. (2003). The Psychology of Parental Control: How Well-Meant Parenting Backfires.New York, NY: Erlbaum.

  • Google Scholar

• 96

  Gross-LohC. (2014). Parenting without Borders.New York, NY: Penguin Random House.

  • Google Scholar

• 97

  GuinA.AllenK.BarnesJ. (2018). Development and pilot evaluation of the very important parents program (VIP): an intensive parent education program for teens.Family Sci. Rev.22103–123.

  • Google Scholar

• 98

  HaugstvedtK. T.Graff-IversenS.BechensteenB.HallbergU. (2011). Parenting an overweight or obese child: a process of ambivalence.J. Child Health Care1571–80. 10.1177/1367493510396262

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 99

  HelmsJ. E.JerniganM.MascherJ. (2005). The meaning of race in psychology and how to change it: a methodological perspective.Am. Psychol.6027–36. 10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.27

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 100

  HerbersJ. E.CutuliJ. J.LafavorT. L.VriezeD.LeibelC.ObradovicJ.et al. (2011). Direct and indirect effects of parenting on academic functioning of young homeless children.Early Educ. Dev.2277–104. 10.1080/10409280903507261

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 101

  HoefleV. (2012). Duct Tape Parenting: A Less is More Approach to Raising Respectful, Responsible and Resilient Kids.Boston, MA: Bibliomotion.

  • Google Scholar

• 102

  HoeveM.DubasJ. S.GerrrisJ. R. M.Van der LaanP. H.SmeenkW. (2011). Maternal and paternal parenting styles: unique and combined links to adolescent and early adult delinquency.J. Adolesc.34813–827. 10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.02.004

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 103

  HoldenG. W.EdwardsL. A. (1989). Parental attitudes toward child rearing: instruments, issues, and implications.Psychol. Bull.10629–58. 10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.29

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 104

  HongJ.MinJ.KongK. A.ParkB. H.LeeB.ShonJ. H.et al. (2008). Comparison of the risk-taking behaviors of children and the practices adopted by their caregivers for improving home safety.Public Health122179–188. 10.1016/j.puhe.2008.01.015

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 105

  HuM.CaiT. (2008). The influence of parent rearing pattern and self-concept to social withdrawal behavior of schoolchild.Chin. J. Clin. Psychol.16292–293.

  • Google Scholar

• 106

  HummerJ. F.LaBrieJ. W.EhretP. J. (2013). Do as I say, not as you perceive: examining the roles of perceived parental knowledge and perceived parental approval in college students’ alcohol-related approval and behavior.Parenting13196–212. 10.1080/15295192.2013.756356

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 107

  HurstK.BragaD.GreenwoodS.BaronavskiC.KeeganM. (2023). How Today’s Parents Say their Approach to Parenting Does – or Doesn’t – Match Their Own Parenting.Pew Research Center. Available online at: https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2023/01/24/how-todays-parents-say-their-approach-to-parenting-does-or-doesnt-match-their-own-upbringing/

  • Google Scholar

• 108

  HwangW.FuX.KimS.JungE.ZhangY. (2023). A multidimensional construct of helicopter parenting and college students’ game and social media addictive behaviors: a cross-cultural study in South Korea and china.Front. Psychol.13:1022914. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1022914

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 109

  IottiN. O.MeninD.LongobardiC.JungertT. (2023). Investigating the effects of autonomy-supportive parenting practices on Italian young adolescent students’ motivation to defend victims of bullying: findings on the mediating roles of reactance, depression, anxiety, and stress.Front. Psychol.14:1156807. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156807

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 110

  IrwinS.ElleyS. (2011). Concerted cultivation? Parenting values, education and class diversity.Sociology45480–495. 10.1177/0038038511399618

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 111

  JohnsonB. D.BerdahlL. D.HorneM.RichterE. A.WaltersM. (2014). A parenting competency model.Parenting1492–120. 10.1080/15295192.2014.914361

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 112

  JohnsonJ. G.CohenP.ChenH.BrookJ. S. (2006). Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood.Arch. General Psychiatry63579–587. 10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.579

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 113

  JoinsonA. (1999). Social desirability, anonymity, and internet-based questionnaires.Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput.31433–438. 10.3758/BF03200723

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 114

  JoussemetM.LandryR.KoestnerR. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on parenting.Can. Psychol. / Psychol. Can.49194–200. 10.1037/a0012754

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 115

  KaplanR. M.SaccuzzoD. P. (2009). Psychological Testing: Principles, Applications, and Issues.Medina County, OH: Wadsworth.

  • Google Scholar

• 116

  KatzK. S.JarrettM. H.El-MohandesA. A.SchneiderS.McNeely-JohnsonD.KielyM. (2011). Effectiveness of a combined home visiting and group intervention for low income African American mothers: the pride in parenting program.Mater. Child Health J.1575–84. 10.1007/s10995-011-0858-x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 117

  KaufmanJ.ZiglerE. (1993). “The intergenerational transmission of abuse is overstated,” in Current Controversies on Family Violence, edsGellesR. J.LosekeD. R. (Cham: Springer), 209–221. 10.1089/jwh.2005.14.754

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 118

  KawachiI.SubramanianS. V.KimD. (2008). “Social capital and health,” in Social Capital and Health, E1, edsKawachiI.SubramanianS. V.KimD. (Cham: Springer).

  • Google Scholar

• 119

  KelleyH. H.MarksL. D.DollahiteD. C. (2020). Uniting and dividing influences of religion on parent-child relationships in highly religious families.Psychol. Relig. Spirit.14128–139. 10.1037/rel0000321

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 120

  KelleyM. L.TsengH. (1992). Cultural differences in child rearing. A comparison of immigrant Chinese and Caucasian American mothers.J. Cross Cult. Psychol.23444–455. 10.1177/0022022192234002

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 121

  KendrickD.BarlowJ.HampshireA.Stewart-BrownS.PolnayL. (2008). Parenting interventions and the prevention of unintentional injuries in childhood: systematic review and meta-analysis.Child34682–695. 10.1111/j.1365-2214.2008.00849.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 122

  KingK. A.VidourekR. A.MerianosA. L. (2016). Authoritarian parenting and youth depression: results from national study.J. Prevent. Intervent. Commun.44130–139. 10.1080/10852352.2016.1132870

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 123

  KinsleyC. H.TrainerR.Stafisso-SandozG.QuadrosP.MarcusL. K.HearonC.et al. (2006). Motherhood and the hormones of pregnancy modify concentrations of hippocampal neuronal dendritic spines.Hormones Behav.49131–142. 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.05.017

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 124

  KnafoA.PlominR. (2006). Parental discipline and affection and children’s prosocial behavior: genetic and environmental links.J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.90147–164. 10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.147

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 125

  KneeC. R.UysalA. (2011). “The role of autonomy in promoting healthy dyadic, familial, and parenting relations,” in Human Autonomy in Cross-Cultural Contexts: Perspectives on the Psychology of Agency, Freedom, and Well-Being, edsChirkovV. I.RyanR. M.SheldonK. M. (Cham: Springer), 95–110. 10.1007/978-90-481-9667-8

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 126

  KolosA. C.GreenE. J.CrenshawD. A. (2009). Conducting filial therapy with homeless parents.Am. J. Orthopsychiatry79366–374. 10.1037/a0017235

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 127

  KruegerJ. I.HeckP. R. (2019). Putting the p-value in its place.Am. Stat.73122–128. 10.1080/00031305.2018.1470033

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 128

  KrumpalI. (2013). Determinants of social desirability bias in sensitive surveys: a literature review.Qual. Quant.472025–2047. 10.1007/s11135-011-9640-9

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 129

  LansfordJ. E.WagerL. B.BatesJ. E.PettitG. S.DodgeK. A. (2012). Forms of spanking and children’s externalizing behaviors.Fam. Relat.61224–236. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00700.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 130

  LauW. W.YuenA. H. (2013). Adolescents’ online risky behaviours: the influence of gender, religion, and parenting style.Comput. Hum. Behav.292690–2696. 10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.005

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 131

  LessenberryB. M.RehfeldtR. A. (2004). Evaluating stress levels of parents of children with disabilities.Except. Child.70231–244. 10.1177/001440290407000207

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 132

  LiD.LiW.ZhuX. (2023). Parenting style and children emotion management skills among Chinese children aged 3–6: the chain mediation effect of self-control and peer interactions.Frontiers in Psychology14:1231920. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1231920

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 133

  LiN.PengJ.LiY. (2021). Effects and moderators of Triple P on the social, emotional, and behavioral problems of children: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Front. Psychol.12:709851. 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.709851

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 134

  LinkB. G. (1987). Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: an assessment of the effects of expectation of rejection.Am. Sociol. Rev.5296–112. 10.2307/2095395

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 135

  LiuM.ChenX.ZhengS.ChenH.WangL. (2009). Maternal autonomy- and connectedness-oriented parenting behaviors as predictors of children’s social behaviors in China.Soc. Dev.18671–689. 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00501.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 136

  LordF. M. (1953). On the statistical treatment of football numbers.Am. Psychol.8750–751. 10.1037/h0063675

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 137

  MaX.ShenJ.KrennH. Y.HuS.YuanJ. (2016). A meta-analysis of the relationship between learning outcomes and parental involvement during early childhood education and early elementary education.Educ. Psychol. Rev.28771–801. 10.1007/s10648-015-9351-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 138

  MaccobyE. E.MartinJ. A. (1983). “Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction,” in Handbook of Child Psychology: Socialization, Personality, and Social Development, Vol. 4ed.MussenP. H. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley), 1–101.

  • Google Scholar

• 139

  MaggioC. N. (2008). Social support for coping with stress: a resource for parents of disabled children.Dissertation Abstracts Int.69:1333.

  • Google Scholar

• 140

  MahoneyA. (2010). Religion in families 1999-2009: a relational spirituality framework.J. Marr. Fam.72805–827. 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00732.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 141

  MalahatA.NazifiM.SorkhabiN. (2019). Parenting styles and academic achievement of early adolescent girls in Iran: mediating roles of parent involvement and self-regulated learning.Eur. J. Psychol. Educ.3549–72. 10.1007/s10212-019-00422-y

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 142

  ManderscheidR.DelvecchioP.MarshallC.PalpantR. G.BighamJ.BornemannT. H.et al. (2010). Attitudes toward mental illness – 35 States, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, 2007.Morbidity Mortality Weekly Rep.59619–625.

  • Google Scholar

• 143

  MannM. B.PearlP. T.BehleP. D. (2004). Effects of parent education on knowledge and attitudes.Adolescence39355–361.

  • Google Scholar

• 144

  MarchantM.YoungK. R.WestR. P. (2004). The effects of parental teaching on compliance behavior of children.Psychol. Sch.411–13. 10.1002/pits.10165

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 145

  MarkusL. H.Cooper-ThomasH. D.AllpressK. N. (2005). Confounded by competencies? An evaluation of the evolution and use of competency models.N. Zealand J. Psychol.34117–126.

  • Google Scholar

• 146

  MarrelliA. F.TondoraJ.HogeM. A. (2005). The fundamentals of workforce competency: implications for behavioral health.Admin. Policy Mental Health Mental Health Serv. Res.32509–531. 10.1007/s10488-005-3263-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 147

  McCaffreyS.ReitmanD.BlackR. (2016). Mindfulness in parenting questionnaire (MIPQ): development and validation of a measure of mindful parenting.Mindfulness8232–246. 10.1007/s12671-016-0596-7

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 148

  McClellandD. C. (1973). Testing for competence rather than “intelligence.”Am. Psychol.281–14. 10.1037/h0034092

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 149

  McKeeL. G.ParentJ.ZacharyC. R.ForehandR. (2018). Mindful parenting and emotion socialization practices: concurrent and longitudinal associations.Family Process57752–766. 10.1111/famp.12329

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 150

  McMorrisB. J.TylerK. A.WhitbeckL. B.HoytD. R. (2002). Familial and “on-the-street” risk factors associated with alcohol use among homeless and runaway adolescents.J. Stud. Alcohol6334–43.

  • Google Scholar

• 151

  McWayneC.HamptonV.FantuzzoJ.CohenH. L.SekinoY. (2004). A multivariate examination of parent involvement and the social and academic competencies of urban kindergarten children.Psychol. Schools41363–377. 10.1002/pits.10163

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 152

  MeteyerK. B.Perry-JenkinsM. (2009). Dyadic parenting and children’s externalizing symptoms.Fam. Relat.58289–302. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2009.00553.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 153

  MillerA. L. (2017). Stereotype threat as a psychological feature of work-life conflict.Group Process. Intergr. Relat.22302–320. 10.1177/1368430217735578

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 154

  MillerK. F.BorelliJ. L.MargolinG. (2018). Parent–child attunement moderates the prospective link between parental overcontrol and adolescent adjustment.Family Process57679–693. 10.1111/famp.12330

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 155

  MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD. G.The Prisma Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement.PLoS Med.6:e1000097. 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 156

  MolgaardV. K.SpothR. L.RedmondC. (2000). Competency Training: The Strengthening Families Program for Parents and Youth 10–14.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

  • Google Scholar

• 157

  MooreD. L.TarnaiJ. (2002). “Evaluating nonresponse error in mail surveys,” in Survey Nonresponse, edsGrovesR. M.DillmanD. A.EltingeJ. L.LittleR. J. A. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley), 197–211.

  • Google Scholar

• 158

  MorganP. J.LubansD. R.CallisterR.OkelyA. D.BurrowsT. L.FletcherR.et al. (2011). The ‘healthy dads, healthy kids’ randomized controlled trial: efficacy of a healthy lifestyle program for overweight fathers and their children.Int. J. Obesity35436–447. 10.1038/ijo.2010.151

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 159

  MorrisseyR. A.GondoliD. M. (2012). Change in parenting democracy during the transition to adolescence: the roles of young adolescents’ noncompliance and mothers’ perceived influence.Parenting1257–73. 10.1080/15295192.2012.638872

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 160

  MorrongielloB. A.CorbettM.BellissimoA. (2008). “Do as I say, not as I do”: family influences on children’s safety and risk behaviors.Health Psychol.27498–503. 10.1037/0278-6133.27.4.498

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 161

  MyrbergE.RosénM. (2008). A path model with mediating factors of parents’ education on students’ reading achievement in seven countries.Educ. Res. Eval.14507–520. 10.1080/13803610802576742

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 162

  NashJ. B. (2008). Children’s social skills training: relative effectiveness of three training models.Dissertation Abstracts Int.693857.

  • Google Scholar

• 163

  National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Duration and developmental timing of poverty and children’s cognitive and social development from birth through third grade.Child Dev.76795–810. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00878.x

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 164

  NeelM. L. M.StarkA. R.MaitreN. L. (2018). Parenting style impacts cognitive and behavioural outcomes of former preterm infants: a systematic review.Child44507–515. 10.1111/cch.12561

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 165

  Nexford Staff. (2024). What’s the Difference between Skills and Competencies?.Washington, DC: Nexford University.

  • Google Scholar

• 166

  NogueiraS.CanárioA. C.Abreu-LimaI.TeixeiraP.CruzO. (2022). Group Triple P intervention effects on children and parents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health19:2113. 10.3390/ijerph19042113

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 167

  NomaguchiK.HouseA. N. (2013). Racial-ethnic disparities in maternal parenting stress: the role of structural disadvantages and parenting values.J. Health Soc. Behav.54386–404. 10.1177/0022146513498511

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 168

  NunesC. E.RotenY. D.GhaziriN. E.FavezN.DarwicheJ. (2020). Co-parenting programs: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Family Relat.70759–776. 10.1111/fare.12438

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 169

  OdenwellerK. G.Booth-ButterfieldM.WeberK. (2014). Investigating helicopter parenting, family environments, and relational outcomes for Millennials.Commun. Stud.65407–425. 10.1080/10510974.2013.811434

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 170

  OhW.SongS.NiehuisS. (2021). Processes linking mothers’ perceptions of relationship satisfaction with their partner, coparenting, and parenting to children’s competence and behavior problems.Family Sci. Rev.2518–35.

  • Google Scholar

• 171

  OhanJ. L.LeungD. W.JohnstonC. (2000). The parenting sense of competence scale: evidence of a stable factor structure and validity.Can. J. Behav. Sci.32:251. 10.1037/h0087122

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 172

  OngA. D.WeissD. J. (2000). The impact of anonymity on responses to sensitive questions.J. Appl. Soc. Psychol.301691–1708. 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02462.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 173

  PatrickH.NicklasT. A. (2005). A review of family and social determinants of children’s eating patterns and diet quality.J. Am. Coll. Nutr.2483–92. 10.1080/07315724.2005.10719448

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 174

  PerepletchikovaF.KazdinA. E. (2004). Assessment of parenting practices related to conduct problems: development and validation of the Management of Children’s Behavior Scale.J. Child Family Stud.13385–403. 10.1023/B:JCFS.0000044723.45902.70

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 175

  Perez-BrenaN. J.DuncanJ. C.JonghC. D.ToewsM. (2020). Parenting stress and coparenting among adolescent parents.Family Relat.70793–807. 10.1111/fare.12499

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 176

  PerryN. B.DollarJ. M.CalkinsS. D.KeaneS. P.ShanahanL. (2018). Childhood self-regulation as a mechanism through which early overcontrolling parenting is associated with adjustment in preadolescence.Dev. Psychol.541542–1554. 10.1037/dev0000536

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 177

  PinquartM. (2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: an updated meta-analysis.Dev. Psychol.53873–932. 10.1037/dev0000295

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 178

  PutnickD. L.BornsteinM. H.HendricksC.PainterK. M.SuwalskyJ. T.CollinsW. A. (2008). Parenting stress, perceived behaviors, and adolescent self-concept in European American families.J. Family Psychol.22752–762. 10.1037/a0013177

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 179

  QuinnR.FaermanS.ThompsonM.McGrathM. (1990). Becoming a Master Manager: A Competency Framework.Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

  • Google Scholar

• 180

  RadeyM.RandolphK. A. (2009). Parenting sources: How do parents differ in their efforts to learn about parenting?Fam. Relat.58536–548. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2009.00573.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 181

  RaffertyY.ShinnM.WeitzmanB. C. (2004). Academic achievement among formerly homeless adolescents and their continuously housed peers.J. School Psychol.42179–199. 10.1016/j.jsp.2004.02.002

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 182

  ReipsU. D. (2012). “Using the Internet to collect data,” in APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology: Vol. 2. Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative, Neuropsychological, and Biological (Chapter 17), edsCooperH.CamicP. M.LongD. L.PanterA. T.RindskopfD.SherK. J. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association). 10.1037/13620-017

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 183

  RobertsS. O.Bareket-ShavitC.DollinsF. A.GoldieP. D.MortensonE. (2020). Racial inequality in psychological research: Trends of the past and recommendations for the future.Perspect. Psychol. Sci.151295–1309. 10.1177/1745691620927709

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 184

  RobertsonR. E.TranF. W.LewarkL. N.EpsteinR. (2017). Estimates of non-heterosexual prevalence: the roles of anonymity and privacy in survey methodology.Arch. Sex. Behav.471069–1084. 10.1007/s10508-017-1044-z

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 185

  RobinsonC. C.MandlecoB.OlsenS. F.HartC. H. (1995). Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: development of a new measure.Psychol. Rep.77819–830. 10.2466/pr0.1995.77.3.819

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 186

  RogersH.MatthewsJ. (2004). The parenting sense of competence scale: Investigation of the factor structure, reliability, and validity for an Australian sample.Aust. Psychol.3988–96. 10.1080/00050060410001660380

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 187

  RohnerR. P.KhalequeA.CournoyerD. E. (2005). Parental acceptance-rejection theory, methods, evidence, and implications.Ethos33299–334. 10.1525/eth.2005.33.3.299

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 188

  SalminA. H.NasrudinD.HidayatM. S.WinarniW. (2021). The effect of overprotective parental attitudes on children’s development.Jurnal Belaindika315–20.

  • Google Scholar

• 189

  SandersM. R. (1999). Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: towards an empirically validated multilevel parenting and family support strategy for the prevention of behavior and emotional problems in children.Clin. Child Family Psychol. Rev.271–90. 10.1023/A:1021843613840

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 190

  SchleeB. M.MullisA. K.ShrinerM. (2009). Parents social and resource capital: predictors of academic achievement during early childhood.Child. Youth Serv. Rev.31227–234. 10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.07.014

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 191

  SchrodtP.LedbetterA. M.OhrtJ. K. (2007). Parental confirmation and affection as mediators of family communication patterns and children’s mental well-being.J. Fam. Commun.723–46.

  • Google Scholar

• 192

  Scotto RosatoN.SchmitzM. F. (2006). Valued characteristics of children in a changing social environment.Fam. Soc.87277–284. 10.1606/1044-3894.3521

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 193

  ShippmannJ. S.AshR. A.BattistaM.CarrL.EydeL. D.HeskethB.et al. (2000). The practice of competency modeling.Pers. Psychol.53703–740. 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00220.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 194

  SimonsL. G.SimonsR. L.CongerR. D. (2004). Identifying the mechanisms whereby family religiosity influences the probability of adolescent antisocial behavior.J. Comp. Family Stud.35547–564.

  • Google Scholar

• 195

  SingerE.Van HoewykJ.MaherM. P. (2000). Experiments with incentives in telephone surveys.Public Opin. Q.64171–188. 10.1086/317761

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 196

  SistlerA. K.GottfriedN. W. (1990). Shared child development knowledge between grandmother and mother.Family Relat.3992–96. 10.2307/584955

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 197

  SleddensE. F. C.O’ConnorT. M.WatsonK. B.HughesS. O.PowerT. G.ThijsC.et al. (2014). Development of the comprehensive general parenting questionnaire for caregivers of 5-13 year olds.Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Activity11:15. 10.1186/1479-5868-11-15

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 198

  SmithC. A.CudabackD.GoddardH. W.Myers-WallsJ. (1994). National Extension Parent Education Model.London: Kansas Cooperative Extension Service.

  • Google Scholar

• 199

  SmithW. G. (2008). Does Gender Influence Online Survey Participation? A Record-Linkage Analysis of University Faculty Online Survey Response Behavior.New York, NY: ERIC Document Reproduction Service.

  • Google Scholar

• 200

  SnowdenP. L.ConwayK. D. (1996). A comparison of self-reported parenting behaviors and attitudes of parents of academically precocious and non-precocious preschool children.Roeper Rev.1997–101. 10.1080/02783199609553798

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 201

  SoenensB.VansteenkisteM.LensW.LuyckxK.BeyersW.GoossensL.et al. (2007). Conceptualizing parental autonomy support: adolescent perceptions of promoting independence versus promoting volitional functioning.Dev. Psychol.43633–646. 10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.633

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 202

  SparlingJ.LowmanB. (1983). Parent information needs as revealed through interests, problems, attitudes, and preferences.Parent Educ. Public Policy304–323.

  • Google Scholar

• 203

  SpothR.RandallG. K.ShinC. (2008). Increasing school success through partnership-based family competency training: experimental study of long-term outcomes.Sch. Psychol. Q.2370–89. 10.1037/1045-3830.23.1.70

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 204

  SpothR.RedmondC. (1996). A theory-based parent competency model incorporating intervention attendance effects.Fam. Relat.45139–147.

  • Google Scholar

• 205

  StaceyJ.BiblarzT. J. (2001). (How) does the sexual orientation of parents matter?Am. Sociol. Rev.66159–183.

  • Google Scholar

• 206

  StearnsP. N. (2019). Happy children: A modern emotional commitment.Front. Psychol.10. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02025

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 207

  SteeleC. M.AronsonJ. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test-performance of African-Americans.J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.69797–811. 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 208

  SteeleC. M.SpencerS. J.AronsonJ. (2002). “Contending with group image: the psychology of stereotype and social identity threat,” in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 34ed.ZannaM. P. (New York, NY: Academic Press), 379–440. 10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80009-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 209

  SteeleE. H.McKinneyC. (2019). Emerging adult psychological problems and parenting style: Moderation by parent-child relationship quality.Pers. Individ. Differ.146201–208. 10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.048

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 210

  StenhammarC.SarkadiA.EdlundB. (2007). The role of parents’ educational background in healthy lifestyle practices and attitudes of their 6 year old children.Public Health Nutr.101305–1313. 10.1017/S1368980007696396

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 211

  Sturge-AppleM. L.DaviesP. T.WinterM. A.CummingsE. M.SchermerhornA. (2008). Interparental conflict and children’s school adjustment: the explanatory role of children’s internal representations of interparental and parent-child relationships.Dev. Psychol.441678–1690. 10.1037/a0013857

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 212

  Suarex-MoralesL.HarrisA. P. (2023). Relationship of parent cultural stress, overprotective parenting practices, and Hispanic children’s anxiety.J. Child Family Stud.321–10. 10.1007/s10826-023-02560-w

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 213

  SuizzoM.-A.JacksonK. M.PahlkeE.MarroquinY.BlondeauL.MartinezA. (2012). Pathways to achievement: How low-income Mexican-origin parents promote their adolescents through school.Family Relat.61533–547. 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00727.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 214

  SymondsP. M. (1949). The Dynamics of Parent-Child Relationship.New York, NY: Columbia University.

  • Google Scholar

• 215

  TharnerA.LujikM. P.van IJzendoornM. H.Bakermans-KranenburgM. J.JaddoeV. W.HofmanA.et al. (2012). Maternal lifetime history of depression and depressive symptoms in the prenatal and early postnatal period do not predict infant-mother attachment quality in a large, population-based Dutch cohort study.Attach. Hum. Dev.1463–81. 10.1080/14616734.2012.636659

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 216

  TownsendJ. T.AshbyF. G. (1984). Measurement scales and statistics: the misconception misconceived.Psychol. Bull.96394–401. 10.1037/0033-2909.96.2.394

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 217

  TrauR. N. C.HärtelC. E. J.HärtelG. F. (2013). Reaching and hearing the invisible: organizational research on invisible stigmatized groups via web surveys.Br. J. Manage.24532–541. 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2012.00826.x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 218

  TripleP. (2024). The World of Triple P. Available online at: https://www.triplep.net/glo-en/find-out-about-triple-p/the-world-of-triple-p/(accessed March 12, 2024).

  • Google Scholar

• 219

  TruteB.Hiebert-MurphyD. (2002). Family adjustment to childhood developmental disability: a measure of parent appraisal of family impacts.J. Pediatr. Psychol.27271–280. 10.1093/jpepsy/27.3.271

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 220

  UngarM. (2009). Overprotective parenting: helping parenting provide children the right amount of risk and responsibility.Am. J. Fam. Therapy37258–271. 10.1080/01926180802534247

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 221

  United States Census Bureau (2025). Educational Attainment in the United States: 2024. Available online at: https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2024/demo/educational-attainment/cps-detailed-tables.html(accessed July 4, 2026).

  • Google Scholar

• 222

  UpdegraffR. (1939). Recent approaches to the study of the preschool child, III: Influence of parental attitudes upon child behavior.J. Consult. Psychol.334–36. 10.1037/h0055652

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 223

  ValentineG. (2004). Public Space and the Culture of childhood.London: Ashgate.

  • Google Scholar

• 224

  VermeerP. (2011). The impact of parental religiosity on parenting goals and parenting style: a Dutch perspective.J. Beliefs Values3269–84. 10.1080/13617672.2011.549311

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 225

  VillarroelM. A.TurnerC. F.EgglestonE.Al-TayyibA.RogersS. M.RomanA. M.et al. (2006). Same-gender sex in the United States impact of T-ACASI on prevalence estimates.Public Opin. Q.70166–196. 10.1093/poq/nfj023

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 226

  Vyšniauskytė-RimkienėJ. (2019). Mindfulness in parenting adolescents: love breeds love, hate breeds hate.Soc. Work Groups42323–333. 10.1080/01609513.2019.1571761

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 227

  WangF.CoxM. J.Mills-KoonceR.SynderP. (2015). Parental behaviors and beliefs, child temperament, and attachment disorganization.Family Relat.64191–204. 10.1111/fare.12120

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 228

  WarashB. G.MarkstromC. A. (2001). Parental perceptions of parenting styles in relation to academic self-esteem of preschoolers.Education121:485.

  • Google Scholar

• 229

  WarnJ.TranterP. (2001). Measuring quality in higher education: a competency approach.Qual. High. Educ.7191–198. 10.1080/13538320120098078

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 230

  WestF.SandersM. R.CleghornG. J.DaviesP. S. W. (2010). Randomised clinical trial of a family-based lifestyle intervention for childhood obesity involving parents as the exclusive agents of change.Behav. Res. Therapy481170–1179. 10.1016/j.brat.2010.08.008

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 231

  WeyandC.O’LaughlinL.BennettP. (2013). Dimensions of religiousness that influence parenting.Psychol. Relig. Spirit.5182–191. 10.1037/a0030627

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 232

  WinderC. L.RauL. (1962). Parental attitudes associated with social deviance in preadolescent boys.J. Abnormal Psychol.64418–424. 10.1037/h0044640

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 233

  WolfordS. N.HoltropK. (2020). Examining the emotional experience of mothers completing an evidence-based parenting intervention: A grounded theory analysis.Fam. Proc.59445–459. 10.1111/famp.12441

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 234

  WongE. H.WiestD. J.CusickL. B. (2002). Perceptions of autonomy support, parent attachment, competence and self-worth as predictors of motivational orientation and academic achievement: an examination of sixth- and ninth-grade regular education students.Adolescence37255–266.

  • Google Scholar

• 235

  YeeA. H. (2009). Ethnicity and race: psychological perspectives.Educ. Psychol.1814–24. 10.1080/00461528309529257

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 236

  YehudaR.BellA.BiererL. M.SchmeidlerJ. (2008). Maternal, not paternal, PTSD is related to increased risk for PTSD in offspring of Holocaust survivors.J. Psychiatr. Res.421104–1111. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.002

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 237

  ZhangR.WangZ. (2024). Effects of helicopter parenting, tiger parenting and inhibitory control on the development of children’s anxiety and depressive symptoms.Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev.561–12. 10.1007/s10578-024-01685-3

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 238

  ZookA. M.Jr. (2006). Military Competency-Based Human Capital Management: A Step Toward the Future.Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College.

  • Google Scholar