Miles with Mind: An Exploratory Study of Cognitive-Behavioral-Based VR Training for Strategy and Motivation in Long-Distance Running

Fernando Pedro Cardenas Hernandez^1,2*Jan Schneider^1*Telse Nagler^1,3Emilia Parada-Cabaleiro⁴Daniel Schiffner¹Andreas Dengel²Hendrik Drachsler^1,2

• ¹Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education (DIPF), Frankfurt, Germany
• ²Goethe University, Faculty of Computer Science, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
• ³University of Bremen, Institute for Psychology, Bremen, Germany
• ⁴Nuremberg University of Music, Nuremberg, Germany

Introduction: The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the potential effects of virtual reality (VR) mental training, based on cognitive-behavioral (CB) techniques, on race preparation among long-distance recreational runners within a sports coaching context. Although VR interventions have shown promises for enhancing athletic performance, their integration with CB-based imagery and self-talk remains limited. Methods: Using a single-subject A-B-A design, six recreational runners completed two races: a first race without mental training and a second race after a series of VR mental training sessions conducted alongside their usual physical training. Each participant used a VR headset equipped with an application that delivered strategy guidance (including pacing and drafting) while also targeting motivation through CB-based imagery and self-talk. Navigation occurred entirely in a virtual environment, with no physical movement. Background audio featured participant-generated self-talk statements. Performance data from VR sessions were recorded through log-file, and emotional responses were assessed with the Emotional Stress Reaction Questionnaire (ESRQ). Race outcomes were compared using smartwatch metrics and participant self-assessments (e.g. Likert scales and open-ended responses). Results: Following CB-based VR training, most participants reported using pacing and drafting strategies more frequently during the second race. Self-talk frequency increased, and post-race questionnaires indicated higher motivation ratings. Smartwatch data suggested moderately enhanced pacing consistency compared to baseline for some individuals. Discussion: These exploratory findings suggest that CB-based VR mental training might help the adoption of certain race strategies and encourage self-talk use withing a coaching context. Results from the study may serve as preliminary reference points for future research aimed at integrating VR tools into complementary coaching approaches.