Implementation of biophilic design principles for sustainable housing development

Abstract

Reconnecting building occupants with nature while encouraging sustainability has become more important due to ongoing urbanization and growing environmental concerns. In order to enhance both the natural environment and the well-being of residents. This study investigated the role of biophilic design in sustainable housing, aiming to develop a framework that guides architectural decisions, fosters restorative living environments, and informs future designs that strengthen the human-nature connection. This research addresses a research gap, as the existing body of knowledge is limited in its investigation of how biophilic design principles can be effectively integrated into residential architecture, particularly sustainable housing, to enhance occupant well-being and environmental performance. With the aid of a qualitative approach, the research analyzed biophilic design principles adopted in housing design and their impacts on sustainable housing delivery. A review of thirty-one articles published between 2004 and 2024 was conducted through internet-based searches in academic databases, including Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, and the Covenant University Repository. The collected data were subjected to content analysis. The findings informed the development of a biophilic design framework and a corresponding architectural proposal. The results were presented descriptively, supported by visual architectural representations to enhance clarity and comprehension. The study proposed a framework for integrating biophilic design into sustainable housing, exemplified by a design constructed from upcycled metal shipping containers. Biophilic architecture offers innovative solutions in residential projects, fostering hope for the future of sustainable housing. The study highlighted the alignment of biophilic principles with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), promoting well-being (SDG 3), urban sustainability (SDG 11), climate change mitigation (SDG 13), and biodiversity conservation in urban ecosystems (SDG 15). The research adds to the discourse on biophilic architecture in housing projects, showcasing its opportunities and applications for sustainable housing schemes.

1 Introduction

The increasing challenges of global urbanization, climate change, and urban heat islands have led to significant environmental damage and a disconnect between people and the natural environment. This has led to a paradigm shift in rethinking housing design and enhancing occupant well-being, as sustainable practices have become an efficient approach to architectural design. Among the innovative design approaches gaining traction in addressing challenges is biophilic design, which integrates nature-inspired elements and principles into the environment to boost user comfort and environmental friendliness. This design concept aims to foster humanity's inherent connection with nature while promoting sustainable development goals in housing development.

The words “bio” and “philia” convey “life” or “living things,” and “love,” respectively. “Biophilia” characterizes an affinity for the natural world and its inhabitants. In 1984 and 1993, Edward Wilson defined biophilia as a psychological response that is “innate,” “hereditary,” and genetically inherited (Zhong et al., 2021).

Over time, these efforts have expanded to incorporate the ecological, social, and cultural dimensions of sustainability (Chiu, 2004; Ahmed, 2011). To ensure affordability and accessibility, recent studies have emphasized that sustainable housing must integrate local cultural settings and traditional building methods to meet the diverse needs of communities (Olubi and Aseyan, 2022). According to Enwin and Ikiriko (2024), this comprehensive strategy is crucial for satisfying the housing needs of urban populations, especially in developing nations where the fast pace of urbanization presents significant challenges. Consequently, experts in the construction sector continue to examine ways to integrate sustainable features into housing delivery, recognizing that striving for sustainable living is only achievable once these strategies are identified (Ibem et al., 2015). However, to demonstrate the potential of green facade design as a measure of environmental sustainability, building professionals, including designers, practitioners, and developers, are increasingly adopting it (Jegede et al., 2021). Overall, it impacts energy and water consumption, enhances energy efficiency, and ultimately contributes to innovative and sustainable living.

Adopting biophilia in sustainable housing development is becoming recognized as an important aspect of addressing modern environmental issues such as urban heat islands and climate change (Beatley and Newman, 2013). By incorporating natural features such as trees, water bodies, and passive lighting into residential projects, designers can reduce energy consumption and enhance residents' psychological and physical well-being (Verma, 2023; Gillis and Gatersleben, 2015). Sustainable housing development must integrate biophilic design, as it has been demonstrated to improve social cohesion and community resilience (Hady, 2021; Totaforti, 2018).

Architects are particularly interested in biophilic design because they aim to incorporate nature-inspired features into the built environment, utilizing the “biophilia” principle (Zhong et al., 2021). The concept of incorporating biophilic architecture to create healthier, more environmentally friendly surroundings is both interesting and stimulating to users. It provides a viable foundation for incorporating natural aspects into architectural design, aligning architecture with sustainable and healthy living.

Research has repeatedly shown that incorporating organic materials, plants, and daylight into building designs can enhance occupant well-being and mental health outcomes (Leif and Loftness, 2024; Kalan and Oliveira, 2014; Untaru et al., 2023). Research has repeatedly shown that incorporating organic materials, plants, and daylight into building designs can enhance occupant well-being and mental health outcomes (Leif and Loftness, 2024; Kalan and Oliveira, 2014; Untaru et al., 2023). The potential of environmentally friendly design to enhance the well-being of individuals in urban settings has piqued the interest of the architectural community. Research (Bolten and Barbiero, 2020; Downton et al., 2017; Aduwo et al., 2021; Ceylan and Soygeniş, 2019; Lei et al., 2022) has underscored the positive effects of biophilic architecture in a variety of building typologies, such as workplaces, library spaces, retail establishments, medical facilities, and schools. This substantial body of evidence reinforces confidence in the positive outcomes associated with biophilic design. However, a research gap exists, as there is a limited body of knowledge on how biophilic design principles can be effectively integrated into residential architecture, particularly sustainable housing, to enhance occupant well-being and environmental performance.

Consequently, this study investigated the role of biophilic design in sustainable housing, aiming to develop a framework that guides architectural decisions, fosters restorative living environments, and informs future designs that strengthen the human-nature connection. This research presents a conceptual research-through-design study, detailing the application of biophilic design principles in the development of a conceptual framework for a proposed residential architecture. The study is guided by a research question: How can the principles of biophilic design be adopted and applied to create a proposed sustainable housing model in Lagos, a high-density city?

To this end, the objective of the study is to:

• adopt the principles of biophilic design to develop an architectural proposal for a sustainable housing development.

This study investigates the increasing interest in biophilic design and its potential to improve occupant satisfaction and foster environmentally conscious living. The study offers valuable and insightful information on the application of established biophilic design principles, as noted by Browning et al. (2014), which can be effectively incorporated into sustainable housing schemes. This housing scheme is presented through a detailed architectural proposal for a shipping container-based housing development, illustrating the application of biophilic design principles and their viability, as well as the positive impacts of biophilic architecture on residents. It offers insightful recommendations for architects, urban planners, policymakers, and residents.

The study is based on the premise that biophilic architecture has emerged as a key driver in advancing environmental sustainability. Additionally, the study provides substantial support for several of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Implementing biophilic design principles in housing development promotes SDG 3, ensuring users' good health and well-being. It contributes to making a safe, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable urban development in alignment with the objectives of SDG 11. The study also aligns with SDG 13, which advocates for a more climate-resilient design in mitigating climate change, as well as promotes diversity in the land ecosystem for urban development in conformity with SDG 15. By fostering a bond between residents and the physical surroundings, biophilia in urban dwelling design helps create sustainable urban environments and improves residents' living conditions.

2 Literature review

2.1 Principles of biophilic design in sustainable housing development

The development of sustainable house projects has been driven by urbanization and environmental concerns globally. These projects are gaining traction because they are intended to improve comfort, quality of life, and resilience to environmental issues. As the integration of natural components into architectural design becomes increasingly prevalent, a concept known as “biophilic design” has emerged. By incorporating aspects of ecological processes into the built environment, biophilia seeks to improve interactions between humans and nature (Abraham et al., 2023).

The essential elements and principles of biophilic design have been identified. Regarding this, Terrapin Bright Green presented the “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design.” For architects, these patterns are a helpful way to illustrate the relationships between architecture, psychology, and nature. They are essential in enhancing the human-nature relationship by facilitating the development and analysis of biophilic design patterns (Downton et al., 2017). This design concept, which focuses on fostering a deep connection with nature, enables the user to feel more connected to the natural world (Browning et al., 2014). The patterns are grouped under three broad headings and described in the following sections.

2.1.1 Nature in space patterns

• i. A visible attachment to the natural world by including natural living organisms and materials.

• ii. Associations with pleasant feelings about nature that are not visual and come from aural, tangible, aromatic and taste stimuli.

• iii. Inchoate, intermittent, and statistically defined non-rhythmic sensory changes.

• iv. Slight variations in temperature, relative humidity, and air movement that are consistent with natural conditions.

• v. When water is present, it improves a location's experience through sight, sound, or touch.

• vi. Air and dispersed, dynamic light that mimics natural lighting settings.

• vii. Connecting with natural systems and being conscious of the cyclical and chronological variations characterizing a healthy ecosystem.

2.1.2 Natural analogs patterns

• viii. Biophilic design corresponds to biomorphic forms and layouts that are similar to those found in nature.

• ix. The use of organic materials, like stone, and timber, in the design and expression of the local ecosystem is an intrinsic feature of biophilic design.

• x. Biophilic design requires developing complexities and order.

2.1.3 Nature of the space patterns

• xi. Prospect: a sight of the world that permits distant vision, long-range planning, and long-lasting perception;

• xii. Refuge: a location where one can escape the main action or the surroundings.

• xiii. Mystery: an overwhelming desire to see more, undiscovered views, or other sensory components that lure one to investigate the surroundings more.

• xiv. Risk/Peril: an identified hazard with robust safety.

2.2 Positive effects of biophilic design principles on residents and the environment

Biophilia refers to the innate human desire to interact with the environment. By integrating natural elements into the ecosystem, such as water bodies, greenery, ventilation, and daylight, this design concept creates healthier and more ecologically friendly environments. Kellert and Calabrese (2015) proposed this concept, which Totaforti (2018) extensively cited. The notion that biophilic design is pleasant is supported by research that demonstrates how nature enhances human health and well-being (Gillis and Gatersleben, 2015). The implementation of biophilic design principles has demonstrated numerous positive effects, including improved mental state, reduced stress, enhanced concentration and satisfaction, as well as safer and more secure living environments, and accelerated recovery in healthcare facilities (Yassein and Ebrahiem, 2018).

People may experience negative psychological and physical effects from living in a location devoid of natural elements (Newman and Soderlund, 2015). Recent research concentrated on the outcomes of nature on the mind and body, as well as its application in interior spaces. Nature can be used both directly and indirectly in a residential building's interior to create a peaceful atmosphere and enhance occupants' comfort and health. Researchers are investigating methods for incorporating these concepts into design practice due to the health benefits (Zebua and Putra, 2022).

In sustainable housing, biophilic design promotes energy efficiency and resource conservation. Adequate natural ventilation and daylighting, for instance, may reduce the need for mechanical heating and air conditioning systems, thereby lowering energy consumption (Cacique and Ou, 2022; Thomas and Xing, 2021). Additionally, biophilic practices, such as creating green roofs or utilizing natural materials, can enhance biodiversity, a crucial factor for environmental sustainability, by incorporating native plants and living habitats into residential architecture projects both indoors and outdoors (Cabanek et al., 2020; Panlasigui et al., 2021). By focusing on environmental friendliness, biophilic design aims to transcend the relationship and interaction between people and nature.

According to Akande and Aduwo (2019), biophilic patterns can serve as an engaging and sustainable alternative to current sustainable design practices. Biophilic design has the potential to address significant urban issues, including resource efficiency, ecological depletion, and mental well-being, by incorporating natural aspects into the physical landscape. The ideas and benefits of biophilic design, as highlighted in this study's literature, should encourage architects to consider incorporating natural elements and their features into new building design projects.

2.3 Precedents in existing shipping container housing and biophilic housing projects

The application of shipping containers in architecture has gained traction as a sustainable construction strategy, primarily due to its potential for recycling industrial waste, modularity, and rapid deployment. Concurrently, several projects have sought to integrate biophilic principles to enhance comfortable living, providing valuable lessons for this study.

A prominent case study is the “Keetwonen student housing complex” in Amsterdam, one of the world's most significant shipping container housing projects. It demonstrated that with proper insulation and thoughtful planning, container modules can accommodate high-population density, comfortable, and affordable living. The project's success highlighted the importance of ample natural light, vibrant color schemes, and communal areas to counteract the potentially monotonous and confined nature of modular units, indirectly applying biophilic principles of visual connection and complexity.

In a more explicit biophilic approach, the “Cité A Docks student housing” in Le Havre, France, utilized stacked containers with large glazed façades and extensive green roofs. The project emphasized the connection to the surrounding port landscape and integrated vegetation at multiple levels. A key outcome from this project is the critical role of mitigating the containers' industrial aesthetic and thermal properties through strategic glazing for views (Visual Connection with Nature) and green roofs for insulation and ecological enhancement (Connection with Natural Systems).

These precedents underscore that the success of utilizing shipping containers as building structures is contingent on overcoming their inherent challenges—particularly thermal performance and social perception—through deliberate design. The integration of biophilic principles emerges not as a mere aesthetic choice but as a crucial strategy for transforming industrial modules into healthy, desirable, and ecologically responsive homes.

2.4 Biophilic design framework development

An analysis of the literature's findings informed the development of a conceptual framework. This framework is designed to guide the integration of biophilic principles into sustainable housing in hot-humid climate regions. It is structured around the three established categories of biophilic patterns—Nature in Space, Natural Analogs, and Nature of Space, translating each into specific, actionable design strategies. Emphasis was placed on principles that can be applied to shipping container housing, such as optimizing cross-ventilation, implementing shading devices, and using local, natural materials to mitigate the industrial view of the site location. This framework provided the foundational logic and decision-making criteria for the architectural proposal developed in this study.

3 Materials and methods

This study employed a systematic literature review to examine the application of biophilic design principles in sustainable housing development, extracting, analyzing, and synthesizing secondary data to inform the development of a conceptual design framework that can guide future sustainable housing projects integrating biophilic strategies. The systematic review method was apt for gathering a wide range of insights and practices on biophilic design in residential sustainability contexts.

Due to the conceptual nature of the research, which focuses on understanding patterns, principles, and applications within the existing literature, a qualitative exploratory design was adopted. The qualitative approach enabled a critical examination of the biophilic housing concept within its natural settings, providing rich and contextual insights that are valuable for studying how humans interact with their environments.

Data were collected from relevant secondary sources in reputable academic databases, including Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, and the Covenant University Repository, utilizing internet-based searches to navigate these resources online. A combination of keywords was used for the search: (“biophilic design principles” OR “biophilia”) AND (“sustainable housing” OR “residential buildings”) AND (“green architecture” OR “nature-based solutions”) AND (“principles” OR “framework”). Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to combine these terms effectively. These keywords include: “biophilia”, “biophilic design principles,” “sustainable housing,” “green architecture,” “nature-based solutions,” “residential buildings,” and “sustainable housing development.” The search for publications was limited to those written in the English language between 2004 and 2024.

To ensure the relevance and quality of the selected literature, pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied during the screening process. These criteria are detailed in Table 1. Following the full-text review, 31 studies were identified as relevant, as shown in Table 2, and included in the qualitative synthesis.

To ensure currency and relevance, the study included only peer-reviewed conference proceedings, journal articles, books, and institutional publications published between 2004 and 2024. Other inclusion criteria include publications written in English, research focusing on biophilic design principles within the context of residential or housing development, and studies featuring case studies, conceptual discussions, or empirical data related to sustainable development. Where sources focused solely on buildings used for non-residential purposes or were opinion pieces that lacked academic rigor, they are excluded.

A quality appraisal was conducted on the full-text articles to assess their credibility and relevance to the research aim. This was carried out to evaluate the strength of the evidence and contextualize the findings. The appraisal checklist included the following questions:

• i. Does the study clearly state its research objectives?

• ii. Is the methodology appropriate and well-described?

• iii. Are the biophilic design principles clearly defined and applied?

• iv. Are the findings clearly presented and supported by the literature?

• v. Does the study contribute meaningfully to the understanding of biophilic design in a housing development?

A total of 35 documents were initially found. After a thorough assessment, 31 of the documents were deemed relevant to fulfilling the research aim and were reviewed. Textual analysis was employed to extract data from each selected source. Key information extracted includes definitions and the biophilic design theoretical framework, biophilic design principles and elements, the application procedure in the context of residential development, positive impacts, limitations, and sustainability performance, as well as insights into case studies and local adaptations.

The data were then categorized into themes and summarized in a matrix format to ascertain patterns, inconsistencies, and gaps in the available literature. Recurring themes were arranged into groups, including design principles, application strategies, psychological/social positive impact and environmental implications.

At the end of the data analysis, findings were compiled to determine core biophilic design principles and elements particularly pertinent to sustainable housing development. The evidence gathered formed the foundation for the development of the conceptual framework and architectural design proposal, which aimed to guide future sustainable housing initiatives. The framework integrates the environmental, architectural, and user-friendly aspects of biophilic design, designed for application in both urban and semi-urban residential settings.

4 Results

As a conceptual model for this study, the design proposal was created using an upcycled metal shipping container found abandoned around the study area, Lekki Free Trade Zone in Lagos State, Nigeria. The term “upcycled metal shipping container” describes a process of structural reuse involving significant modification of a shipping container, such as cutting, insulation, and cladding, to serve a new, higher-value purpose as a primary building component. An international seaport, “Lekki Deep Sea Port,” one of the most developed ports in West Africa, is situated within Lekki Free Trade Zone. This makes the area where the site is located a major center, supporting trade, not only in Nigeria but throughout the West African region. Figure 1 shows the site location plan, while Figure 2 is the site analysis sheet.

Figure 1

Figure 2

The presence of the abandoned metal shipping containers constitutes an environmental problem. To address the housing deficit issues in Lagos, Africa's most populous city, abandoned metal shipping containers were repurposed as the primary building component to create livable spaces.

Improved and comfortable human living conditions are achieved when biophilic design is incorporated into sustainable home design. Therefore, the complex and rigid nature of the metal containers is softened through the integration of biophilic design elements, which strengthen the human-nature connection and enhance the environmental sustainability of the proposal. Browning et al. (2014) established that the design of a sustainable housing development also implemented the principles of biophilia as a conceptual framework. This serves as a relevant precedent for its application in this sustainable housing development proposal.

4.1 Site selection criteria

The proposed housing development is situated within Lekki Free Trade Zone in Lagos State, Nigeria. Lagos, Africa's most populous city, is characterized by rapid urbanization, a significant housing deficit, and a hot-humid tropical climate. The selection of this site as a context for the proposed design was planned, representing an extreme case where pressures of density, climate and resource scarcity are acutely experienced. The presence of Lekki Deep Sea Port makes the area a major center for trade, resulting in the availability of abandoned shipping containers, which present both a waste management strategy through reuse and repurposing and a potential building material. The occupants of this proposed building are low and middle-income urban residents affected by the housing crisis in Lagos, whose inferred needs include affordability, community interaction and a close connection to nature as a place of comfort from the dense urban city. The design proposal provides a specific design solution for the comfort of residents in Lagos; therefore, the framework is developed to be adaptable.

4.2 Design concept

The housing development features two accommodation units that cater to two distinct building typologies on the site, providing spaces that are practical, accessible to all residents, and in harmony with the natural environment. One of the accommodation units has twenty 2-bedroom apartments, while the other housing unit has forty 1-bedroom units (see Figures 8–31).

The authors adopted a modular architecture concept to design the spatial arrangements. This involved planning and designing shipping container units around an open-terraced system. This approach will enable residents to experience nature within the inner core spaces of the accommodation while benefiting from natural lighting and ventilation in areas that might otherwise have been disadvantaged.

The façade design drew inspiration from nature, incorporating a spiral motif that reflected its movement and patterns. In biophilic design, the spiral line flow symbolizes evolution, dynamism, and continuity, reflecting design movement and patterns found in nature, such as shells, plants, and galaxies, as shown in the concept development diagram (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Through its relationship to nature, this design concept stimulates a sense of tranquility and comfort. The façade incorporates natural materials, including wood for wall components and finishes, as well as green elements such as shrubs and hanging plants.

The biophilic design framework, derived from the systematic review, was operationalised in the architectural design proposal. Twelve biophilic design principles from the 14 patterns established by Browning et al. (2014) were implemented in this sustainable housing development proposal. The “Air and dispersed, dynamic light” pattern was excluded due to the presence of fenestration designed to optimize daylighting, view and natural ventilation without increasing the thermal load on the proposed building. Furthermore, the “Risk/Peril” pattern was not considered in the design proposal due to its incompatibility with the building codes in residential housing. Furthermore, the design processes are discussed in the following sections.

4.3 Nature in space patterns

• i. Visual Connection with Nature

The upcycled shipping container units maximize natural views in all living spaces across every floor through:

• a. Large Glazed Openings: the introduction of large glass windows within the container walls provides unobstructed views of the site's natural landscaping elements.

• b. Strategic Orientation: living spaces are positioned to face natural greenery such as plants, trees, water fountains, and pools present on the site, enhancing residents' connection with nature.

• c. Green Terrace: the shipping container units are arranged around open central terraces filled with soft landscaping and seating areas, enhancing visual engagement with nature. Additionally, rooftop terraces are introduced to provide expansive views of the surroundings and atmosphere.

• ii. Non-visual Link with Nature

Beyond visual stimuli, the design engages other senses such as smell, sound, and touch.

• a. Scented Gardens: fragrant plant species, including English Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and Angular Jasmine (Jasminum angulare), are incorporated into balconies near living spaces, offering a soothing olfactory experience. Central and rooftop gardens with fragrant plants are incorporated to promote health and comfort.

• b. Natural Soundscapes: outdoor water fountains and swimming pools are incorporated into the site's planning to create a natural sound effect similar to that of nature's waterfronts or waterfalls, thereby bringing residents closer to nature, given the absence of a natural waterbody on the site. The natural vegetation on the site attracts singing birds and insects; therefore, it is retained and enhanced to create a lush garden that fosters a natural soundscape environment.

• c. Tactile Features: organic materials such as wood and stone are incorporated into indoor finishes and outdoor spaces, providing a textured, natural touch experience for residents.

• iii. Non-rhythmic Sensory Stimuli

Subtle and unpredictable natural stimulation was patterned to enrich outdoor and indoor environments.

• a. Moving Features: hanging plants, swaying curtains, and leaves are integrated to respond to natural breezes, creating a lively ambience through their dynamic motion.

• b. Fauna Interaction: the softscape gardens are designed to attract butterflies, bees, and other insects, adding vibrancy and life to the outdoor environment.

• iv. Thermal and Airflow Variability

Passive climate control strategies are infused to enhance the living comfort of residents.

• a. Cross-ventilation: all living spaces are cross-ventilated, with window openings strategically placed to maximize natural ventilation.

• b. Shaded Area: balconies, vertical and horizontal grills, and hanging plants are incorporated to provide shade, particularly on west-facing façades exposed to intense sunlight (Figure 5).

• c. Thermal Insulation: metal shipping containers conduct heat along their surface. Consequently, the containers are insulated using mineral wool to prevent heat transfer from the outdoor environment to the indoor space.

• v. Presence of Water

Water features are integrated into the design process for both functional and aesthetic purposes.

• a. On-site use: water fountains and a swimming pool within this residential community provide visual and auditory relaxation for residents.

• vi. Rainwater Harvesting

Roof drainage systems, equipped with ducting, are provided in the design to collect rainwater for reuse in gardening, site clearing and maintenance, and greywater systems associated with housing units.

• vii. Connection with Natural Systems

These are design features that integrate natural cycles.

• a. Green Roofs: the green rooftop terraces are included to support the growth of food crops and native plants, improve insulation and provide fresh produce for residents' consumption (Figures 13, 22).

• b. Landscaping: deciduous trees are introduced to provide shade from direct sunlight and enhance site ecology (Figures 28–31).

• c. Solar Paneled Roofing System: the roofing system, designed to provide shade at the rooftop terrace, is covered with a solar panel system that harnesses the abundant sunlight in the tropical region location of the site. This serves as an electricity source for every accommodation unit and on-site facilities (Figure 4).

Figure 4

4.4 Natural analogs patterns

• viii. Biomorphic Forms and Patterns

Nature-inspired pattern and form were conceptualized into the architectural and structural design.

• a. Facade Design: balconies on each floor level are arranged with varied horizontal extents, creating a dynamic vertical motion inspired by the spiral line movement from the observer's perspective, as explained in the design concept.

• Vertical grills enclosing each balcony were modeled to screen off direct sunlight from the western sides of both buildings, designed to reflect a similar spiral vertical line in jagged-line patterns, creating interesting building façades and adding to the visual interest of observers (Figure 5).

• b. Structural Elements: a steel bracing system is employed, configured to support wind loads in a spiral-like direction, ensuring structural stability.

Figure 5

• ix. Material Connection with Nature

• a. Interior Surfaces: wood products are used for wall cladding, flooring, and furniture, adding warmth and texture.

• b. Exterior Cladding: the industrial aesthetic of the metal containers is softened with greenery, blending the built and natural environments.

• x. Complexity and Order

A harmonious balance between diversity and coherence in the landscape architecture of the housing design was achieved by combining symmetry with organic, meandering paths at the open terraces, and rooftop gardens (Figures 4, 13, 22).

4.5 Nature of the space patterns

• xi. Prospect

The rooftop terraces and balconies, equipped with safety railings, offer expansive views of the surrounding natural landscape.

• xii. Refuge

The design features enclosed spaces that provide safety and a retreat for occupants.

• a. Private Nooks: semi-enclosed balconies in each unit offer personal retreats (Figures 5, 29–31).

• b. Garden Retreats: shaded seating areas surrounded by dense vegetation provide secluded relaxation spaces (Figure 6).

Figure 6

• xiii. Mystery

The design encourages curiosity and exploration.

• a. Winding Pathways: pathways are created in revealing secluded gardens (Figure 7).

• b. Layered Vegetation: tall trees and shrubs are incorporated in green spaces to partially obscure views of certain areas, creating a sense of curiosity from residents (Figures 28–31).

Figures 7–31 are architectural presentation drawings of the sustainable housing development proposal, which include plans, sections, elevations, and 3-dimensional views to enhance clarity and facilitate easy understanding.

Figure 7

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4.6 Technical considerations and feasibility

• i. Structural performance analysis

The stacking of metal shipping containers in the design proposal utilizes a moment-frame structure with continuous vertical bracing, as indicated in the spiral-patterned bracing, to ensure stability against lateral loads such as wind loads.

• ii. Thermal performance analysis

The proposed design incorporated the use of mineral wool insulation, with a typical R-value of approximately 3.0–3.7 per inch, which was applied to the composite wall and floor system. This was intended to mitigate thermal bridging and condensation, which are common issues in metal shipping container houses. The combined

effect of insulation, cross-ventilation strategies, and shading devices was designed to reduce the cooling load effectively.

• iii. Energy performance analysis

The energy system proposed in the design incorporated a rooftop solar panel array. A preliminary estimate suggests an installed capacity of approximately 25–30 kW for the proposed housing development, which is intended to power standard area lighting, water circulation pumps, and offset the energy consumption of the apartments.

The rainwater harvesting system is designed with gutter and downpipe networks that channel water to rooftop storage tanks, which are accommodated in the service room. Based on the roof catchment area and the average annual rainfall in Lagos (~1,800 mm), the system has the potential to collect over 500,000 L of water annually, sufficient for landscape irrigation and non-potable uses, such as toilet flushing.

5 Discussions

The outcome of this study suggests that biophilic design principles can be effectively applied in sustainable housing development, provided that natural elements, space planning, and material selection are carefully considered. Twelve biophilic design patterns, out of a possible fourteen, were implemented in this design proposal. The comprehensive integration supports Kellert's and Calabrese (2015) claim that biophilia produces healthier spaces, aligning with the patterns identified by Browning et al. (2014). In alignment with Yassein and Ebrahiem (2018) study on the benefits of biophilia on wellness, the thoughtful incorporation of green areas, water features, and eco-friendly building materials creates a multisensory environment that strengthens residents' connection to the natural world.

The use of abandoned shipping containers addresses environmental concerns and housing shortages in the study area. This approach aligns with Enwin and Ikiriko's (2024) emphasis on meeting the housing demands of urban populations in underdeveloped countries, such as Nigeria, demonstrating how biophilic design can be combined with sustainable building techniques. This design concept is similar to the presentation of Thomas's and Xing (2021) for improving comfort for residents through the application of biophilic design. Incorporating natural ventilation measures and solar controls also corroborates the investigation conducted on green facades in residential buildings by Jegede et al. (2021), which highlights the practical application of principles related to environmental sustainability.

Additionally, the provision of open terraces fosters interaction among residents and strengthens the community. The public spaces support Hady's (2021) findings on the positive effects of nature on human health and well-being in communal settings. Integrating solar panels and rainwater collection systems demonstrates how biophilic design promotes resource conservation, aligning with Cacique's and Ou (2022) research toward creating a resilient, sustainable, and healthy ecosystem. This approach complements Cabanek et al.'s (2020) concept of generating various urban advantages through biophilic architecture. A study by Olubi and Aseyan (2022) on the assessment of social and cultural sustainability in public housing schemes is reflected in indigenous materials, further reinforcing the study's outcome regarding sustainable and community-sensitive design principles. The preliminary performance assessment, as stated earlier, provides a foundational basis for the feasibility of the proposed strategies, suggesting that the design proposal has the potential to achieve its environmental goals.

This research provides a crucial first step in the development of nature-integrated, sustainable housing. The outcomes related to occupant well-being and building performance are therefore presented not only as research findings, but also as a set of comprehensive ideas generated from a synthesis of existing literature and applied design logic. The site selected in Lagos for the proposed design, as justified earlier, was selected due to its intense urban pressures, including high population density, a lack of housing, and environmental pollution generated from abandoned shipping containers. Hence, the design proposal acts as an innovative framework that is conceptually viable under these extreme conditions. This study presents a model for conducting future research, including a cost-benefit assessment and engagement with future residents and community stakeholders through participatory design methods, to ensure practical viability.

Generally, the study suggests that integrating biophilic design elements into a residential development can enhance well-being, sustainability, and social connection. It underscores the universal value of biophilic design in addressing urban challenges and advocates for supportive policies, further research, and nature-centered practices in architecture.

6 Conclusion

The study developed a comprehensive design framework for sustainable housing schemes by investigating the role of biophilic design in promoting restorative living environments, guiding architectural decisions, and enhancing the human-nature connection in residential developments. This study proposes that biophilic design principles can be integrated into sustainable residential developments, offering health and comfort benefits to residents and fostering a resilient, eco-friendly housing community. Incorporating nature into residential areas through various sensory experiences makes living spaces healthier, and residents gain greater satisfaction. Combining biophilic principles with sustainable building design provides innovative approaches to residential buildings in rapidly urbanizing areas.

The study proposed a framework for the application of twelve out of the possible fourteen biophilic design elements in the conceptualization and design of a sustainable housing development on the Lekki axis of Lagos State, Nigeria, affirming the potential viability and value of integrating nature-centered principles into contemporary architectural practice. The findings underscore the potential significant benefits of biophilic design, including improved environmental performance, enhanced occupant well-being, and better social cohesion within residential communities.

Outside its localized application, the study holds global relevance. As urbanization intensifies and mental health concerns rise, particularly in dense city environments, the integration of biophilic principles offers a sustainable, human-centered response. The design approach showcased in this study contributes to a growing body of knowledge that supports biophilia as a key approach to generating liveable, resilient cities.

The policy implications are clear: urban development guidelines and building regulations should increasingly mandate or incentivise the inclusion of biophilic elements to promote public health and environmental sustainability. For academic study, this research encourages further interdisciplinary exploration into how specific biophilic features affect psychological, physiological, and social outcomes across diverse cultural and climatic contexts. In professional practice, architects, planners, and developers are urged to move beyond aesthetic considerations and embed nature as a functional and experiential core of residential design.

Ultimately, this study presents the innovative potential of biophilic design in residential architecture and advocates for a paradigm shift, where nature is not considered as an external amenity but as an inherent component of the built environment. Embracing this approach is critical to shaping future cities that are sustainable, deeply restorative and life-affirming.

It is acknowledged that the study is limited by its conceptual scope, site specificity, exclusion of two biophilic elements, and the absence of data on post-occupancy to validate user experience and performance outcomes. This limitation stems from the study's goal of developing a design template to guide future similar developments. A limitation of this conceptual study is the absence of stakeholder engagement in the design process. The presented framework and proposal are intended as a conceptual model for how biophilic design principles can be adopted in sustainable housing development. Future research should prioritize user participatory methods, including workshops with future residents, community leaders, and policymakers, to adapt the design to local socio-cultural contexts and enhance its acceptability. Nevertheless, the study proposes the clear potential of biophilic design to improve well-being, environmental sustainability, and social interaction in residential architecture. The findings are highly relevant, offering valuable insights for architects, urban planners, policymakers, researchers, and residents seeking to create healthier, more resilient living environments through nature-integrated design.

Consequently, further studies are needed to evaluate real-world outcomes, user preferences, and broader applications across various contexts. Comparative studies across climates and cultures, as well as investigations into cost-effectiveness and policy integration, are also essential to broaden the application and adoption of biophilic design in residential architecture.

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