Biopolymers for sustainable food systems: role in stabilization, encapsulation, structuring, and packaging

Abstract

The growing demand for sustainable food systems has intensified the search for alternatives to synthetic additives and petroleum-based materials, positioning biopolymers as key multifunctional solutions across food applications. Unlike application-specific reviews, this review provides an integrated perspective on biopolymers across emulsion stabilization, bioactives encapsulation, food structuring, fat replacement, and packaging, highlighting their roles in enabling functional and sustainable food systems. Drawing on recent advances, the review critically synthesizes how structure-property relationships govern the performance of biopolymers across diverse applications, while considering key functional benefits and practical limitations. In colloidal systems, biopolymers act as emulsifiers and stabilizers, where interfacial adsorption combined with bulk structuring and particle-based (Pickering) mechanisms enhances emulsion stability. In encapsulation, biopolymer matrices such as alginate, whey protein, and gum Arabic provide diffusion barriers, thereby improving the stability, bioavailability, and controlled release of bioactive compounds. Their role in food structure involves gelation, thickening, and water-binding, enabling texture design in plant-based foods and development of fat replacers that mimic the sensory and functional properties of fats in healthier formulations. In food packaging, biopolymers are used to develop edible coatings, biodegradable films, and active or intelligent systems to extend shelf life, enhance safety, and reduce reliance on conventional plastics. Additionally, the review discusses the valorization of agricultural byproducts as emerging sustainable feedstocks and identifies key challenges associated with the practical application of biopolymer-based systems in food. Thus, biopolymers represent a versatile material platform for enhancing functionality and sustainability across diverse food applications.

1 Introduction

The modern food industry faces pressing challenges related to sustainability, food security, consumer health, and environmental responsibility. Conventional food processing and preservation often depend on synthetic additives, animal-derived ingredients, and petroleum-based plastics, all of which contribute to ecological burdens and raise concerns about safety and consumer acceptance (González-López et al., 2023; Hassoun et al., 2023). In this context, biopolymers have emerged as versatile and sustainable alternatives, offering functional benefits across formulation, preservation, and packaging. Particularly, renewable and naturally derived biopolymers are gaining increasing attention as solutions to these challenges, due to their alignment with clean-label and sustainability-driven market demands.

Sources of biopolymers are diverse and renewable. They are primarily obtained from plants (e.g., starch, cellulose, pectin, and gums), animals (e.g., gelatin, casein, whey proteins, and chitosan), and microorganisms (e.g., xanthan gum, pullulan, and bacterial cellulose). Recent research trends increasingly prioritize plant- (Fu et al., 2025; Niroula et al., 2022; Sanchez-Salvador et al., 2024), microbial- (Hamid et al., 2024; Khan et al., 2025; Tao et al., 2021; Vardaxi et al., 2025), and waste-derived biopolymers (Das and Arora, 2023; Lv et al., 2025; Muiz et al., 2023) due to their sustainability, scalability, and consumer acceptance, while animal-derived systems remain relevant as functional benchmarks and comparatively more sustainable than petroleum based ingredients (Jin and Adhikari, 2025; Rahman et al., 2024). Food processing byproducts, such as fruit pomace, cereal bran, peels, and seeds, are being valorized as cost-effective and eco-friendly sources of polysaccharides and proteins, promoting circularity and reducing waste (Das and Arora, 2023; Lu et al., 2020; Niroula et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2022). These origins align with clean-label trends and global sustainability goals, reinforcing the potential of biopolymers in next-generation food systems.

Biopolymers exhibit multifunctionality, enabling their application across the entire food chain. Proteins and polysaccharides act as emulsifiers and stabilizers by forming interfacial films that reduce surface tension, enhance viscosity, or create particle-dominated systems such as Pickering emulsions, contributing to improved stability and safety (Niroula et al., 2025c; Niu et al., 2025; Tamang et al., 2022). The biopolymer-based carriers such as alginate, whey protein, and gum Arabic are widely used for encapsulation systems. They function as a matrix or diffusion-controlled barriers that protect sensitive compounds (including antioxidants, probiotics, and essential oils) from oxidation, heat, or pH, while enabling controlled release and enhanced bioaccessibility (Egbeyemi et al., 2024; Solghi et al., 2020; Surendran et al., 2025).

In addition, biopolymers also play a critical role in network formation and intermolecular interactions for texture modification and food structuring, providing gelling, thickening, and water-binding functions that are indispensable for plant-based analogs, dairy alternatives, and emerging technologies such as 3D food printing (Chang et al., 2025; Lin et al., 2026; Ozorio et al., 2025). These structuring principles also reinforce fat replacement strategies, where proteins and polysaccharides are engineered into microparticles, hydrogels, oleogels, and emulsion gels that replicate the sensory and functional properties of fats while reducing calorie and saturated fat content (Kibler et al., 2022; Niu et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2024b). In food packaging and preservation, biopolymers enable the development of edible coatings, biodegradable films, and active and intelligent packaging systems that extend shelf life, enhance food safety, and reduce reliance on conventional plastics (Chiu and Yang, 2024; Esmaeili et al., 2025; Tan et al., 2024). However, the performance of these systems is strongly influenced by material structure, processing conditions, and environmental stability.

Despite extensive research on individual applications, such as bio-based packaging (González-López et al., 2023; Nunes et al., 2023; Prasad et al., 2025), encapsulation systems (Akbarbaglu et al., 2021; Ji et al., 2026; Sin et al., 2025; Song J. et al., 2022), and emulsion (An et al., 2026; Rayees et al., 2024; Tamang et al., 2022) or gel (Niu et al., 2025; Nwankwo et al., 2025; Ozorio et al., 2025; Shu et al., 2025) stabilization, existing reviews remain largely fragmented, origin-specific, or application-specific. This fragmentation limits the development of a unified structure-property-function framework needed to rationally design biopolymer systems across food applications. In particular, critical gaps remain in integrating multifunctionality, optimizing performance under real processing conditions, and translating laboratory-scale advances into scalable and economically viable solutions.

This review addresses this gap by providing an integrated perspective of recent advances in biopolymer applications across food systems. It uniquely integrates structure-property-function relationships to elucidate how biopolymers can be rationally designed for multifunctional roles in colloidal food stabilization, bioactive encapsulation, food structuring, fat replacement, and packaging applications. It discusses their mechanisms of action, functional benefits, and technological innovations, while highlighting opportunities for valorization from underutilized biomass. By consolidating current knowledge, the review emphasizes how biopolymer-based strategies can simultaneously improve food quality, support human health, and promote environmental sustainability.

2 Emulsion stabilization

Biopolymers have emerged as attractive, sustainable ingredients for emulsion stabilization. They contribute through interfacial mechanisms at the oil-water interface and bulk structuring in the continuous phase, both of which help control droplet interactions and system stability (Fu et al., 2025; Jin and Adhikari, 2025; Zhang X. et al., 2023). Emulsions are colloidal dispersions of two immiscible liquids (oil and water), and they require emulsifying agents to prevent phase separation. These systems are commonly classified as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, in which oil droplets are dispersed in an aqueous continuous phase, or water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, in which water droplets are dispersed in a continuous oil phase. Traditionally, food emulsions rely on small-molecule surfactants or dairy-derived proteins, but there is growing interest in natural biopolymers (proteins, polysaccharides, and their complexes) as sustainable alternatives for developing consumer-friendly and environmentally compatible systems (Tamang et al., 2022). Table 1 summarizes representative studies on the use of biopolymers for emulsion stabilization, highlighting system types, mechanisms, and key outcomes. These biopolymers are generally non-toxic, biodegradable, and derived from renewable resources, aligning with clean-label and sustainability trends.

2.1 Stabilization mechanisms

Biopolymers stabilize emulsions through two primary mechanisms, particularly in O/W systems. First, they serve as emulsifiers by adsorbing at the oil-water interface, lowering interfacial tension, and forming viscoelastic interfacial films. Second, they function as stabilizers by enhancing viscosity or forming protective structures in the continuous phase, thereby inhibiting droplet mobility and preventing coalescence and creaming (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Proteins, from both plants and animals, are classic biopolymer emulsifiers due to their amphiphilic nature. Upon conformational rearrangement, proteins orient the hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups toward the respective phases at the interface (Gould and Wolf, 2018; Zhang X. et al., 2023). Many plant-sourced proteins, such as pea protein (Niroula et al., 2022; Qin et al., 2024) and soy protein (Xu et al., 2019; Zheng et al., 2025), are being explored. However, untreated plant proteins often exhibit lower solubility and interfacial activity than dairy proteins, limiting emulsification efficiency (Kaczmarek et al., 2025; Zhang X. et al., 2023). Recent studies have addressed this by modifying plant proteins (through physical, chemical, or enzymatic means) to enhance their flexibility and surface hydrophobicity, thereby improving interfacial adsorption and emulsifying performance.

Polysaccharides mostly act as thickening agents or co-stabilizers. Most pure polysaccharides are highly hydrophilic and do not significantly lower interfacial tension; they enhance stability by thickening, gelation, or multilayer formation in combination with proteins (Gao et al., 2023; Xiao et al., 2025). Yet, some polysaccharides (e.g., gum Arabic, pectin, modified starch, modified cellulose) can act as emulsifiers when they have surface activity and lower interfacial tension (Nguyen and Kha, 2024; Tan et al., 2018), especially when they have residual protein fractions present (Li Y. et al., 2026; Santiago et al., 2018).

Protein-polysaccharide conjugation represents an effective strategy to enhance interfacial performance. Maillard-type conjugation forms covalent linkages between proteins and polysaccharides, producing hybrid structures with enhanced emulsifying/stabilizing properties. Systems such as pea protein-polydextrose (Khan et al., 2024), hazelnut protein-sodium alginate (Atalar et al., 2025), whey protein-maltodextrin and whey protein-pectin (Agustinisari et al., 2024), form thicker interfacial layers and impart stronger steric and electrostatic repulsion, yielding emulsions that resist coalescence better than those stabilized by the proteins or polysaccharides alone. These systems illustrate synergistic stabilization where proteins anchor at the interface, while polysaccharides extend into the aqueous phase, reinforcing the interfacial integrity and increasing continuous-phase viscosity (Semenova, 2017; Tamang et al., 2022).

Although biopolymer-based stabilization is mainly discussed in relation to O/W systems, emulsion technologists have also explored W/O emulsions using biopolymers. However, this remains challenging because most biopolymers are inherently hydrophilic. In practice, W/O food emulsions, such as margarine and butter, still rely largely on low-molecular-weight emulsifiers, although modified amphiphilic biopolymers, such as acylated starch and chitosan derivatives, show some potential for stabilizing the W/O interface by adopting a suitable orientation at the non-polar interface (Yang et al., 2017). Overall, biopolymer-based emulsion stabilization is governed by the combined effects of interfacial adsorption and bulk phase structuring, with proteins, polysaccharides, and their conjugates acting synergistically to control droplet interactions, stability, and rheological behavior. These mechanisms provide a useful basis for designing stable and multifunctional emulsion systems for food applications.

2.2 Pickering stabilization

Pickering emulsions, which are stabilized by solid particles rather than molecular emulsifiers, have drawn increasing interest in food systems. In these systems, biopolymer-based particles adsorb at the oil-water interface, forming a rigid mechanical barrier that prevents droplet coalescence (Niroula et al., 2025c; Schroën et al., 2024). These particles adhere strongly (often irreversibly) to the interface, thereby preventing coalescence even under stress, resulting in exceptional emulsion stability (Rayees et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2024; Yang et al., 2017). The type of Pickering emulsion (O/W vs. W/O) obtained depends on the wettability of the particles: if the particles are more hydrophilic (contact angle θ <90°), they preferentially reside in water and stabilize O/W emulsions, whereas more hydrophobic particles (θ > 90°) favor W/O emulsions. Only particles with sufficient wettability in both oil and water phases (θ close to 90°) are effective at stabilizing emulsions since extremely hydrophilic or hydrophobic particles tend to remain in one phase or the other (Niroula et al., 2025d).

For optimal performance, biopolymer-based particles are often engineered to have appropriate surface properties. Native starch granules, for example, are abundant and food-grade, but too hydrophilic; surface modification (e.g., octenyl succinate anhydride treatment) enhances their amphiphilicity by introducing hydrophobic groups, thereby enabling interfacial adsorption (Wu M. et al., 2025; Yin et al., 2025). Similarly, cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer, has also been utilized in forms like micro- or nano-crystals and fibrillated structures, forming a percolating network and steric hindrance against droplet coalescence (Gharibzahedi et al., 2025; Vardaxi et al., 2025).

Protein-based particles, such as zein nanoparticles, are naturally amphiphilic and can firmly lodge at oil-water interfaces and stabilize emulsions without additional surfactants (Esteghlal et al., 2026; Song T. et al., 2022; Souza et al., 2022). Other proteins, like soy glycinin (Liu and Tang, 2016; Xu et al., 2019), pea protein (Işçimen, 2025; Qiao et al., 2023; Qin et al., 2024), or whey protein (Davtalab et al., 2024; Li et al., 2024; Pu et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024) can be converted to a particulate form through heat denaturation, desolvation, or controlled aggregation, yielding micro- or nano-sized particles suitable for Pickering stabilization. Among these, heat-induced aggregation is a widely used method, where thermal treatment unfolds and aggregates proteins via disulfide bond formation and hydrophobic interactions, producing stable soft colloidal particles suitable for emulsion stabilization; examples include whey protein (Wu et al., 2015), soy protein (Liu and Tang, 2016), and pea protein (Peng et al., 2016; Qiao et al., 2023).

Furthermore, composite biopolymer particles have been designed to fine-tune surface properties for enhancing functionality. Binary systems, such as protein-polysaccharide and protein-polyphenol conjugates, have been widely developed to optimize amphiphilicity and interfacial behavior. Protein-polysaccharide conjugates, often prepared via the Maillard reaction (Agustinisari et al., 2024; Atalar et al., 2025), genipin cross-linking (Huang et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2020), or carbodiimide-mediated coupling (Nimaming et al., 2023; Zhang B. et al., 2021), combine the surface activity of proteins with the steric stabilization provided by polysaccharides. Similarly, protein-polyphenol conjugates impart antioxidant functionalities while improving interfacial adsorption and oxidative stability (Xu et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2024; Zheng et al., 2022). More recently, ternary conjugates combining proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols have been successfully used to fabricate ternary systems with enhanced emulsifying capacity, thermal stability, and antioxidant protection (Cheng et al., 2023; Du et al., 2026; Yan et al., 2020). These ternary complexes offer superior stability and multi-functionality compared to their binary counterparts and hold great potential for developing next-generation food-grade Pickering emulsions. Although some concerns persist regarding whether these systems can be considered true “Pickering” emulsions due to the potential presence of surfactants and electrolytes, biopolymer-based particle-dominated emulsions can still be formulated and adapted for diverse applications across multiple fields (Niroula et al., 2025c; Schroën et al., 2024).

In parallel, recent research has increasingly emphasized sourcing biopolymers from food-processing byproducts and underutilized resources, such as fruit residues (including peels, pomace, and seeds), cereal bran, and spent grain. This strategy not only maintains or enhances emulsion functionality but also aligns with the broader goals of environmental responsibility and clean-label innovation in modern food systems (Burgos-Díaz et al., 2023; Muiz et al., 2023).

Overall, Pickering stabilization demonstrates that engineered biopolymer particles with tailored wettability and surface functionality can form robust, mechanically stable interfacial barriers. By controlling particle properties and interfacial organization, these systems enable highly stable emulsions and multifunctional delivery platforms with enhanced resistance to coalescence and environmental stresses.

3 Encapsulation of bioactives

Bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, probiotics, and essential oils often encounter stability and delivery challenges in food systems. Biopolymers, particularly proteins and polysaccharides, individually or in combination, are particularly attractive due to their natural origin, biocompatibility, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status. These biopolymers form protective barriers that shield bioactives from oxidation, thermal degradation, light exposure, and other adverse conditions, thereby extending shelf life and preserving bioactivity (Choudhury et al., 2021; Rezagholizade-shirvan et al., 2024; Rodríguez et al., 2026).

Biopolymer-based systems also improve the dispersibility of hydrophobic compounds in aqueous environments and facilitate controlled release, enabling targeted delivery in the gastrointestinal tract. This functionality is largely governed by matrix structure, diffusion behavior, and environmental triggers such as pH and ionic strength (McClements, 2018; Rezagholizade-shirvan et al., 2024). The ability to tailor intermolecular interactions, such as electrostatic attraction or hydrophobic binding, between the encapsulant and the core compound provides an additional advantage, often resulting in high encapsulation efficiencies and improved retention of functional properties (D'Onofre Couto et al., 2021; Ledari et al., 2024). Biopolymer carriers such as alginate (Egbeyemi et al., 2024; Rahnemoon et al., 2021; Urbanova et al., 2024), pectin (Galvez-Jiron et al., 2025; He et al., 2021; Urbanova et al., 2024), chitosan (Senthil Kumar and Sheik Mohideen, 2025; Siles-Sánchez et al., 2022; Yousefi et al., 2023), gelatin (Ferreira and Nicoletti, 2021; Szwajgier et al., 2025; Wang H. et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2023), whey proteins (Jain et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2023; Solghi et al., 2020), and gum Arabic (Ferreira and Nicoletti, 2021; Kurniati et al., 2025; Laureanti et al., 2023; Legesse et al., 2026) have been successfully employed to encapsulate and stabilize a wide range of bioactives, offering promising applications across diverse food delivery systems. Figure 2 schematically illustrates representative approaches for preparing biopolymer-based encapsulation systems and the types of structures that can be formed. Selected major techniques are discussed in the following subsections, while Table 2 summarizes commonly used natural biopolymers, their encapsulation techniques, encapsulated compounds, protection mechanisms, and release strategies for food applications.

Figure 2

3.1 Spray drying

Among the encapsulation techniques, spray drying is the most widely applied in the food industry due to its scalability and cost-effectiveness. In this method, an emulsion or solution containing the bioactive compound and wall biopolymers is atomized in hot air, leading to rapid formation of dry microcapsules that preserve bioactivity and, in some cases, facilitate controlled-release applications (Laureanti et al., 2023; Nascimento et al., 2023). Carbohydrates (e.g., maltodextrin and gum Arabic) and proteins (e.g., whey, casein, and gelatin) are commonly employed to enhance encapsulation efficiency and improve stability. Despite the exposure to elevated temperatures, the short residence time helps preserve sensitive compounds, while the solidified biopolymer matrix protects the entrapped core (Díaz-Montes, 2023; Pudžiuvelyte et al., 2025). Although thermal degradation remains a limitation, process optimization strategies, such as reducing inlet temperature and incorporating protective agents, can minimize bioactive losses (Akbarbaglu et al., 2021).

3.2 Freeze-drying

Freeze-drying, or lyophilization, is another technique particularly suited for encapsulating highly heat-sensitive bioactives. The bioactive-biopolymer mixture is frozen and dried under vacuum, resulting in porous structures capable of maintaining the functional integrity of probiotics, antioxidants, and volatile components (Laureanti et al., 2023; Rajam et al., 2012; Šturm et al., 2019). Biopolymers often used include milk proteins, gums, maltodextrin, and starch. While freeze-drying ensures excellent retention, the process is more costly and time-consuming than spray drying, typically reserved for high-value or extremely sensitive ingredients. Alternatively, atmospheric freeze-drying has also been used, avoiding high energy cost and a vacuum system, but is usually limited because of its very long processing time (Bórquez et al., 2013; Colucci et al., 2018).

3.3 Complex coacervation

Complex coacervation is a liquid-liquid phase separation induced by electrostatic interaction of oppositely charged biopolymers, typically proteins and polysaccharides, under controlled pH and ionic conditions (Ligarda-Samanez et al., 2025; Rezazadeh et al., 2025). The process dominantly relies on coacervate droplets acting as a barrier around dispersed cores, such as essential oils, hence are particularly effective for lipophilic compounds (Delaporte et al., 2025; Santos et al., 2021). A wide range of proteins (e.g., milk proteins, soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein) and polysaccharides (e.g., alginate, gums, pectin, agar, chitosan) have been used to prepare the dense coacervate layer, providing high encapsulation efficiency and improved thermal and oxidative stability of the encapsulated actives (Alrosan et al., 2025). It has also been successfully applied for the encapsulation of probiotics, enhancing their survival under gastrointestinal conditions while offering the advantage of mild, non-thermal processing (Liu et al., 2023).

3.4 Emulsion- and gelation-based encapsulation

Biopolymers' role as emulsifiers or stabilizers is discussed in the previous section. The internal phases of such emulsions can be used for the dispersion of bioactives, including symbiotic encapsulation of prebiotics and probiotics (Jiménez-Villeda et al., 2023; Laina et al., 2025; Xu M. et al., 2026), and co-encapsulation and co-delivery of lipophilic and hydrophilic components, especially in multilayered- or multiple- emulsions (Dai et al., 2022; Paredes-Toledo et al., 2025; Wang L. et al., 2024). Biopolymer-based particles are also used for emulsion stabilization, such as whey protein-rutin (Zhang et al., 2024), zein-polyphenols (Xu et al., 2022), and whey protein-tea polyphenols (Zheng et al., 2022) and gels may also be used to entrap bioactives (Hashemi et al., 2024; Wei W. et al., 2025).

Biopolymers such as alginate, whey proteins, and modified starch have further been used act as stabilizers or emulsifiers, trapping bioactives within dispersed droplets or a gel matrix, which are subsequently solidified via ionotropic gelation and drying (Bufalini and Campardelli, 2025; Flamminii et al., 2021). Alginate-based microbeads, often reinforced with additional biopolymers such as chitosan or carboxymethyl cellulose, have been effectively used for encapsulation, enhancing storage stability, improving protection against gastric acidity, and enabling controlled release (Sultana et al., 2023; Vasile et al., 2019).

3.5 Electrohydrodynamic techniques

Electrohydrodynamic techniques, including electrospinning and electrospraying, are emerging as innovative encapsulation methods, enabling the fabrication of nanofibers and nanoparticles from biopolymer solutions under high electric fields (Dehnad et al., 2023; Khan et al., 2025). Biopolymers such as pullulan, dextran, zein, cellulose acetate, and gelatin have been employed to entrap bioactives within electrospun fibers, providing matrices with high surface area, tunable release rates, and improved protection against environmental stressors (Gundogan et al., 2025; Khan et al., 2025; Sethunga et al., 2024; Wang and Su, 2024). While scale-up challenges remain, electrospinning and electrospraying offer promising platforms for creating novel biopolymer-based delivery systems in functional foods and active packaging applications.

In summary, biopolymers serve as versatile carrier materials for improving stability, dispersibility, and controlled release of bioactives in food systems. Their compatibility with multiple encapsulation strategies, including drying, coacervation, emulsion- and gel-based approaches, and electrohydrodynamic techniques, enables the design of delivery systems tailored to different bioactives, matrix structures, and functional objectives. This broad formulation flexibility makes biopolymer-based encapsulation a valuable platform for functional and clean-label food applications.

4 Texture modification and food structuring

Texture is a defining quality attribute in foods, strongly influencing consumer acceptance. In both conventional and reformulated food systems, including plant-based meat analogs, dairy alternatives, and low-fat products, biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides form networks, interfaces, and gels to achieve desirable mouthfeel, cohesiveness, and mechanical integrity (Ali et al., 2026; Ortiz-Deleón et al., 2024; Wang C. et al., 2025). These macromolecules act through various mechanisms, including thickening, gelling, emulsifying, and water binding, to structure food matrices and simulate the functionality of fat or animal proteins. For instance, a pea protein-sodium alginate combination can provide enhanced hardness, chewiness, and juiciness in plant-based meat analog (Ali et al., 2026). Similarly, enzymatically modified κ-carrageenan can enhance gelation of plant-based milk (Fuchs et al., 2026) and the citrus peel can impart texture and creaminess in plant-based cheese (Alehosseini et al., 2026). This section explores the mechanisms by which biopolymers contribute to the textural and structural attributes of a wide range of food systems, including their innovative use in 3D food printing to create customizable textures and geometries.

4.1 . Mechanistic roles of biopolymers in food texture and structuring design

One of the principal food structuring mechanisms by which biopolymers influence texture is gelation. Proteins such as soy, pea, egg, and whey proteins, can undergo heat-induced denaturation and aggregation to form irreversible gel networks that entrap water and fat yielding textures that range from soft and creamy to elastic and meat-like (Ge et al., 2023; Li L. et al., 2025; Wei Y. et al., 2025). Upon partial denaturation and unfolding, proteins expose hydrophobic patches and thiol groups, enabling cold-set gelation via hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction, and sometimes disulfide cross-linking (Li J. et al., 2026; Zhang S. et al., 2021). Polysaccharides (e.g., κ-carrageenan, gums, agar, methylcellulose), in contrast, typically gel via hydrophobic interactions, coil-helix transitions, or water exclusion depending on polymer type (Li L. et al., 2025; Ryu and McClements, 2024; Zhao et al., 2020). Seaweed-derived hydrocolloids like agar and carrageenan form thermo-reversible gels (Hu et al., 2026; Zhao et al., 2020), while alginate and low-methoxy pectin can undergo cold gelation in the presence of divalent ions such as calcium (Wang et al., 2025a; Wu et al., 2024).

A central structuring mechanism emerges when proteins and polysaccharides are combined. The proteins-polysaccharides interactions are mediated by hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction, hydrophobic association, and, in some cases, covalent cross-linking. Depending on thermodynamic compatibility and processing conditions, these interactions can form interpenetrating or phase-separated networks. These interactions modify protein conformation, aggregation pathways, and network topology, leading to improved elasticity, firmness, spreadability, oil-holding capacity, and resistance to thermal and mechanical stress (Chatziantoniou and Thomareis, 2024; Patole et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2024). For instance, supplementing soy protein-based formulations with small amounts of gellan gum, xanthan gum, or pectin can increase cross-linking and fiber formation, yielding meat-like textures even in gluten-free formulations (Taghian Dinani et al., 2023; Ni et al., 2024). Gelation is often combined with multiphase structuring, forming structured systems such as emulsion gels (Fu et al., 2025; Qiao et al., 2023; Tan Y. et al., 2023), emulsion-templated oleogels (Jiang et al., 2018; Su et al., 2023), and bigels (Hashemi et al., 2024; Martins et al., 2023; Wei W. et al., 2025). In such systems, biopolymers act as both interfacial stabilizers and bulk structuring agents, integrating interfacial stabilization with network formation for lipid droplet immobilization within gel matrices to replicate fat functionality in products such as burgers, spreads, and bakery fillings, simultaneously delivering desirable sensory attributes and improved nutritional profiles (Araiza-Calahorra et al., 2024; Zhao R. et al., 2026). For example, in plant-based meats (e.g., sausages or patties), emulsion gels created from protein-polysaccharide matrices immobilize oil droplets, mimicking the stable fat-protein structure of processed meats and preventing fat loss during cooking while enhancing juiciness and water retention (Fu et al., 2025; Tan Y. et al., 2023).

Beyond gelation, biopolymers contribute to food structuring through viscosity enhancement, water binding, and phase stabilization across multiple length scales. Hydrocolloids (e.g., pectin, carrageenan, and gums) enhance viscosity and water-binding capacity, reducing phase mobility, preventing syneresis, and improving juiciness and stability of plant-based meat analogs (Taghian Dinani et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2026). In plant-based milk made from almond, oat, or soy, hydrocolloids such as xanthan gum, carrageenan, guar gum, and gellan gum are incorporated in small amounts to increase viscosity and maintain suspension of dispersed solids (Asif et al., 2026; Lapčíková et al., 2024). In yogurt analogs, pectin, agar, or modified starches are employed to form spoonable gels (Grasso et al., 2020), while in processed or vegan cheeses, hydrocolloids like κ-carrageenan and ι-carrageenan can simulate sliceability and richness by forming calcium-sensitive gels (Ferawati et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2024). Overall, the strategic design of biopolymer systems, through controlled network formation and multiphase structuring, enables precise modulation of texture, structural cohesion, and phase distribution, providing a versatile framework for engineering stable and nutritionally optimized food structures.

4.2 . Innovative uses in 3D food printing

Three-dimensional (3D) food printing has emerged as a transformative platform for food structuring and personalization, with biopolymers playing a central role in the formulation of printable food inks. Extrusion-based 3D printing, the most widely adopted approach due to operational simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and wide material compatibility, requires food materials to display shear-thinning, viscoelastic, and thixotropic behavior to ensure smooth flow through the nozzle and immediate structural integrity after deposition (Outrequin et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2026). This rheological performance is typically achieved by incorporating protein- and carbohydrate-based biopolymers, which not only enhance extrusion and shape fidelity but also maintain layer adhesion and mechanical integrity during and after printing (Ahmadzadeh and Ubeyitogullari, 2023; Amrouche et al., 2025; Li B. et al., 2025).

Polysaccharides like xanthan gum (Tian et al., 2021; Zhan et al., 2023), starch (Ahmadzadeh and Ubeyitogullari, 2023; Montoya et al., 2021), carrageenan (Tian et al., 2021; Zhan et al., 2023), pectin (Amrouche et al., 2025; Li B. et al., 2025), and cellulose derivatives (Ahmadzadeh and Ubeyitogullari, 2023; Zhao X. et al., 2026) are frequently used to stabilize 3D food constructs. They provide cohesive texture, promote water retention, and control post-printing deformation. These functionalities are particularly useful for designing food suitable for individuals with dysphagia, where printed foods need to conform to specific texture categories while remaining nutritionally dense and visually appealing (Ma and Sun, 2026). Milk proteins (Liu et al., 2018; Uribe-Alvarez et al., 2024) and plant proteins such as pea, soy, canola, chickpea, and potato (Ainis et al., 2023; Israeli et al., 2023) also contribute significantly to texture structuring. Most natural proteins require modification for 3D printing, and their rheological and mechanical performance can be tailored through additives or physicochemical treatments (Figure 3). Recent advances show that controlled protein cross-linking, adjustment of water distribution, and strategic incorporation of salts, enzymes, or polyphenols can markedly enhance extrusion behavior and structural accuracy (Tian et al., 2024). These strategies ultimately allow protein inks to form stronger, more stable networks, improving print precision and enabling more complex and nutritionally targeted 3D-printed foods.

Figure 3

Combining 3D food printing with microencapsulation techniques enables the incorporation of sensitive bioactives into biopolymer matrices, providing additional health benefits and controlled-release functionality (Li B. et al., 2025; Zhan et al., 2023). These multi-functional constructs reflect the potential of biopolymer-based 3D printing in designing advanced foods tailored to individual health requirements and sensory preferences. Microencapsulation also enhances the stability and bioavailability of fragile nutrients, ensuring they remain intact during processing and storage (Li B. et al., 2025; Li R. et al., 2025). This integration ultimately enables more targeted nutrient delivery, supporting the development of personalized foods with improved functional performance.

Collectively, these advances illustrate how biopolymers are enabling 3D food printing to evolve from conventional food structuring into a platform for precision nutrition, functional food delivery, and tailored sensory design. By integrating advances in material formulation, microencapsulation, and protein modification, printed foods can now exhibit greater stability, enhanced nutrient retention, and tunable textures that meet specific dietary or medical needs. As both materials and printing systems continue to evolve, biopolymer-based 3D food printing is poised to enable next-generation food products that are customizable, health-promoting, and accessible to a wide range of consumers.

5 Fat replacement strategies in food systems

Excess dietary fat is linked to obesity and cardiovascular disease, yet simply removing fat from foods degrades texture and palatability. Fat contributes to smoothness, juiciness, and structure in foods, so fat replacers must replicate these functional properties while lowering calories (Li S. et al., 2022; Wardana et al., 2025).

5.1 Aqueous-based fat replacement

Recent research has focused on biopolymer-based fat mimetics derived from proteins and polysaccharides (and their combinations), which form hydrated matrices or particles can mimic fat's viscosity, gel structure, water-binding, and lubricity, thereby providing creaminess, bulk, and stability in low-fat products (Nourmohammadi et al., 2023; Wang J. et al., 2023). Proteins (e.g., whey, egg white, soy) based fat replacers often rely on microscale structure to simulate fat globules. The microparticulated proteins, produced through controlled thermal aggregation and shear, can form spherical particles (~0.1–10 μm) that resemble fat globules in size and functionality (Li H. et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2020). A classic example is Simplesse^® (patented in 1988), with other products such as Protelo^® and Dairy-Lo^®, all of which use microparticulated proteins to create a creamy, rich texture in reduced-fat foods via a ball-bearing mechanism (Bourouis et al., 2023). In this mechanism, the protein micro-particles roll and slide past each other under shear, reducing friction and imparting lubrication similar to fat (Liu et al., 2016). Beyond particulate systems, some proteins, such as gelatin and myofibrillar protein, form heat-reversible gels that melt upon oral warming, providing a soft, fat-like mouthfeel (Essa and Elsebaie, 2022; Sulaiman et al., 2026; Zhang L. et al., 2023).

Polysaccharides, such as starch (native or modified), maltodextrin, inulin, pectin, cellulose derivatives, and hydrocolloid gums, mimic fat primarily by increasing water-holding and viscosity and by forming gels or thickened dispersions that add bulk and yield a soft, creamy mouthfeel (Nikolić et al., 2024; Wang J. et al., 2023). Generally, a single polysaccharide cannot replicate all the functionalities of fat; hence, they are often combined to achieve a balance of properties. For example, starch may be used to provide gel structure, while gum contributes to lubrication and flow behavior (Kiprop et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2024). Additionally, protein-polysaccharide combinations can leverage the complementary properties of each component. Proteins provide particulate structures and emulsifying capacity, while polysaccharides contribute thickening and water retention; together they can better emulate the complex role of fat in foods (Amalia et al., 2025; Li et al., 2021; Wang M. et al., 2023). Overall, aqueous-based fat replacement relies on hydrated biopolymer matrices and particulate systems that mimic fat's rheological and tribological properties. Through protein-polysaccharide interactions and structural design, these systems provide tunable texture, lubrication, and stability in reduced-fat formulations.

5.2 Hybrid and restructured lipid systems

In addition to aqueous systems, restructuring liquid oils into solid-like materials has emerged as a key strategy for replicating fat functionality while improving nutritional profiles. Oleogels are formed by converting liquid vegetable oils into semi-solid, viscoelastic gels using food-grade structuring agents (oleogelators), including low-molecular-weight organics like waxes and phytosterols (Noon et al., 2025; Sobolev et al., 2023), as well as certain biopolymers such as starch, cellulose derivatives, and proteins (Espert et al., 2023; Meza-Castellón et al., 2025; Wu S. J. et al., 2025). These oleogelators assemble into a three-dimensional network within the oil phase, physically entrapping the oil and preventing its flow, thereby producing a semi-solid “plastic” fat with consistency and mouthfeel comparable to conventional animal fats (Ferdaus et al., 2024). For instance, cellulose derivatives like ethyl cellulose can form fibrillar networks within oil, stabilizing it without hydrogenation, while natural waxes and phytosterols crystallize into lattices that provide structural rigidity (Soleimanian et al., 2024; Tan T. H. et al., 2023). These oleogels can mimic many of the functional properties of fat: they are spreadable, possess defined melting behavior, and confer desirable mouthfeel and juiciness to food products, while significantly lowering saturated fat content.

Another hybrid strategy is the use of emulsion gels, in which oil droplets are dispersed in an aqueous gel matrix formed by biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides, thereby integrating interfacial stabilization with bulk gelation (Fu et al., 2025; Li H. et al., 2022; Wardana et al., 2025). These systems can replicate the visual appearance and rheological behavior of high-fat solids, making them useful fat replacers in spreads, emulsified meats, and plant-based products. Figure 4 illustrates the principal formulation pathways for plant-based emulsion gels, including heat-induced, acid/salt-induced, enzyme-induced, and mixed protein-polysaccharide systems. These structuring routes explain how emulsion gels can be designed as hybrid fat replacers with tunable texture, stability, and functional performance in food applications. Notably, emulsion gels structured with plant oils have been shown to simulate the viscoelastic properties of pork fat (Fu et al., 2025) and milk fat (Li H. et al., 2022), enabling their application in processed meats and dairy without compromising sensory quality.

Figure 4

Besides oleogel and emulsion gel, bigels provide biphasic structuring capabilities, combining the interconnected network of solid-like structured oils (oleogels) with the water-binding and viscoelastic properties of hydrogels, enabling simultaneous control over lipid and aqueous phases. This dual-network architecture allows tuning of mechanical strength, lubrication, and release behavior, making bigels particularly promising for fat replacement in applications requiring both structural integrity and juiciness, such as spreads, meat analogs, and functional foods (Martins et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024b). Thus, hybrid and restructured lipid systems represent innovative approaches to saturated-fat replacement by structuring healthier oils into fat-like matrices that maintain or enhance the nutritional and sensory attributes of food products.

6 Food packaging and preservation

Food packaging and preservation are critical components that play a central role in ensuring food safety, extending shelf life, reducing food waste, and thus enhancing food sustainability. As the global food sector continues to face challenges related to sustainability, food security, health, and consumer acceptance, innovative packaging solutions have gained much attention from researchers, industry leaders, and policymakers. These solutions can enhance food preservation, reduce waste, improve safety, and meet growing consumer demands for environmentally friendly and functional packaging (Esmaeili et al., 2025; Hassoun et al., 2023; Yi et al., 2025). In this context, biopolymer-based edible films and coatings, biodegradable packaging alternatives, and active and intelligent materials are emerging as key technologies for creating sustainable, functional packaging solutions.

6.1 . Edible films and coatings for shelf-life extension

Edible films and coatings represent a rapidly growing area of food packaging, offering a sustainable and functional alternative to traditional synthetic packaging materials. Natural polymers such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids, which are safe for consumption, are used as base materials for edible films and coatings and are often combined with essential oils, polyphenols, and other components to extend shelf life (Table 3).

Proteins are widely used due to their excellent film-forming properties, nutritional value, biodegradability, and relative abundance. Animal-based proteins such as casein (Karydis-Messinis et al., 2024; Kowalczyk et al., 2025; Picchio et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2020), whey (Etxabide et al., 2023; Goudali et al., 2025; Kowalczyk et al., 2022), and gelatin (Huda et al., 2025; Kowalczyk et al., 2022, 2025) are widely used for their ability to create strong, flexible, and transparent films with effective barrier properties against oxygen and oil. For example, a recent study highlighted the potential of gelatin-based biodegradable packaging films infused with turmeric extract to extend the shelf life of minced chicken meat by effectively inhibiting lipid oxidation and microbial growth (Huda et al., 2025). Plant-based proteins, including soy protein (Karabulut, 2025; Zhang H. et al., 2021), corn zein (Belay et al., 2023; Demirtas et al., 2025; Wu et al., 2023; Zolfaghari et al., 2023), wheat protein (Anthomelides et al., 2026; He et al., 2024), and pea protein (Acquah et al., 2019; Karabulut, 2025) form biodegradable and environmentally friendly films which by incorporation of essential oils, polyphenols and other bioactive components can enhance the shelf life of foods. Recently, wheat gluten films infused with essential oils were reported to delay microbial growth, thereby extending the shelf life of fresh chicken filets (Anthomelides et al., 2026).

Polysaccharides such as chitosan (Jiang et al., 2025; Karydis-Messinis et al., 2024; Ni et al., 2024; Venkatachalam and Lekjing, 2020), starch (Chen et al., 2024; do Nascimento et al., 2023; Oyom et al., 2022; Reis et al., 2025), alginate (Malvano et al., 2022; Shan et al., 2023; Tan et al., 2024), and cellulose derivatives (Das et al., 2022; Li S. et al., 2025; Tan et al., 2024) are valued for their excellent gas barrier properties and film-forming capacity. Chitosan is particularly notable for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, which can be enhanced when combined with essential oils (Ni et al., 2024; Venkatachalam and Lekjing, 2020). Starch, particularly from cassava and sweet potato, is widely used in edible film production due to its abundance, biodegradability, strong film-forming ability, effective barrier properties, and compatibility with food applications; incorporating bioactive components into it can enhance the shelf life of food products (do Nascimento et al., 2023; Oyom et al., 2022). Likewise, alginate and cellulose derivatives offer additional advantages, including good oxygen barrier properties and compatibility with composite film systems (Tan et al., 2024; Tyagi et al., 2021).

Lipids are commonly incorporated into edible films to improve water resistance and reduce moisture loss (Devi et al., 2024; Wu et al., 2024). Waxes, particularly beeswax and carnauba wax, form hydrophobic protective barriers. For example, composite chitosan-beeswax edible coatings were found to improve the shelf life of fruits, reducing senescence and weight loss, and improving consumer acceptance (Velickova et al., 2013). A recent study with six polysaccharides, one polyphenol, and three lipids used as edible coatings for mushrooms, the effect of polysaccharides was limited, whereas lipids significantly extended shelf life (Kaniyamparambil et al., 2025).

Recent advances integrate nanostructured systems, such as nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles, into edible coatings to improve the stability, controlled release, and bioavailability of active compounds, enhancing the protective and antimicrobial properties of the films (Seyyedi-Mansour et al., 2025). For instance, applying carnauba wax nanoemulsion as an edible coating to fresh tomatoes prolonged shelf life by up to 15 days, decreasing decay and maintaining quality (Miranda et al., 2022). Recently, natural wax-based coatings containing eugenol and aloe vera gel were prepared and demonstrated strong antimicrobial activity. When applied to Kaji lemons, the coatings improved quality and extended shelf life by up to 20 days, with enhanced functionality resulting from the incorporation of an eugenol nanoemulsion and aloe vera (Das et al., 2024). Overall, edible films and coatings function through a combination of barrier effects, bioactive delivery, and structural stabilization. The integration of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nanostructured components enables the design of multifunctional coatings that effectively extend shelf life while supporting sustainability and preserving food quality.

6.2 . Biodegradable food packaging alternatives

The conventional packaging materials, such as plastics, glass, and metal, pose significant environmental challenges because they can persist and accumulate in ecosystems. In contrast, biopolymer-based materials, derived from renewable sources, offer a biodegradable alternative that degrades under appropriate conditions, leaving no harmful residues. Bioplastics from renewable sources such as crops, wood pulp, and herbaceous fibers are designed to reduce energy consumption during manufacturing and minimize waste generation (Bie et al., 2025; Paudel and Janaswamy, 2025). Table 4 summarizes key biopolymers, their sources, and degradation characteristics.

Biodegradable biopolymer materials are primarily derived from renewable plant and animal-based sources. Polysaccharides such as starch (do Nascimento et al., 2023; Oyom et al., 2022; Rodríguez et al., 2026; Wu et al., 2026), cellulose and its derivatives (Hussain et al., 2024; Paudel and Janaswamy, 2025; Rahul et al., 2026; Yan et al., 2025), chitosan (Fiallos-Núñez et al., 2024; Karydis-Messinis et al., 2024; Venkatachalam and Lekjing, 2020; Wrońska et al., 2023), and alginate (Shan et al., 2023; Tan et al., 2024) form dense hydrogen-bonded networks that provide effective oxygen barrier properties but remain sensitive to moisture. Proteins such as gelatin (Huda et al., 2025; Shan et al., 2023), casein (Karydis-Messinis et al., 2024; Kowalczyk et al., 2025; Picchio et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2020), whey (Etxabide et al., 2023; Goudali et al., 2025) form cohesive and flexible matrices with moderate barrier performance and improved mechanical strength. Lipids (e.g., beeswax, carnauba wax) contribute hydrophobic domains that reduce water vapor permeability (Sultana et al., 2023; Velickova et al., 2013). However, no single class provides all required functionalities, as biopolymer-based materials often face limitations such as moisture sensitivity, mechanical weakness, and thermal instability, necessitating the design of composite and multiphase systems.

Composite structuring is therefore central to the design of biodegradable packaging. Biopolymer composites that combine complementary properties can improve mechanical strength, barrier performance, and functional stability. For example, edible, biodegradable films made from pectin, gelatin, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose were used to preserve gilthead seabream filets. The results showed that these biodegradable films exhibited strong barrier properties and effectively preserved fresh gilthead seabream filets during refrigerated storage at 2 °C, providing a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based packaging (Athanasopoulou et al., 2024).

Sustainability considerations further extend to raw material sourcing. Agro-industrial and marine waste, such as husks, shells, seeds, and peels, provide valuable feedstocks for biodegradable packaging, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic plastics and contributing to resource valorization and circular economy approaches (Bie et al., 2025; Dissanayake et al., 2026). In these systems, waste-derived polymers are restructured into functional packaging materials, linking material design with reduced environmental impact. For instance, biodegradable films from the alkali-extracted lignocellulosic residue of soyhulls retained the original color, total soluble solids, ascorbic acid, and total phenolic compounds and extended the shelf life of strawberries for 3 more days (Regmi and Janaswamy, 2025).

Despite these advances, several challenges remain. Production costs are typically higher than conventional plastics, and some biodegradable materials have limited barrier properties against moisture and gas, which can shorten product shelf life (Bie et al., 2025; Gong et al., 2024). In addition, biodegradable does not always mean degradable in all ecosystems. Their degradation is environment-dependent, and incomplete breakdown may result in transient biodegradable microplastics that can negatively impact the ecosystem and living organisms, highlighting the need for careful material design and end-of-life considerations (Malafeev et al., 2023).

Collectively, biodegradable biopolymer-based packaging systems rely on the rational design of composite and multiphase structures to balance barrier performance, mechanical integrity, and environmental sustainability. While these materials offer clear advantages in reducing reliance on conventional plastics and enabling circular resource use, addressing limitations in performance, cost, and degradation conditions will be essential for their scalable, reliable application in food packaging systems.

6.3 . Active and intelligent packaging

Smart packaging, including active and intelligent packaging, represents a new frontier in food packaging technology, combining functionality with real-time monitoring and quality control. Active packaging interacts with the food product or the surrounding environment to delay degradation, while intelligent packaging monitors and communicates the food's condition (Baishya and Kumar, 2025; Wang et al., 2025b). Table 5 summarizes representative biopolymer-based systems and their functional components.

Active packaging relies on mass transfer control and targeted release mechanisms to enhance preservation. Incorporation of antimicrobial agents such as silver nanoparticles or essential oils into a biopolymer matrix enables sustained release and inhibition of microbial growth (Tan et al., 2024; Wardejn et al., 2024). Oxygen scavenging is another common feature of active packaging, as removing oxygen from the package prevents oxidation and spoilage (Arfan et al., 2026). Moisture control helps maintain optimal humidity levels and prevents the formation of mold or spoilage (Huang and Tsai, 2020). While chitosan is attractive because of its own antimicrobial and antioxidant properties (Ni et al., 2024; Venkatachalam and Lekjing, 2020), biopolymers such as alginate (Khwaldia et al., 2023; Malvano et al., 2022; Shan et al., 2023; Tan et al., 2024) and starch (Cao P. et al., 2025; Chen et al., 2024; do Nascimento et al., 2023) are particularly effective carriers due to their ability to encapsulate and release active compounds while maintaining structural integrity. These systems illustrate how controlled diffusion and release kinetics can be engineered to extend shelf life and improve product stability (Cao P. et al., 2025; Khwaldia et al., 2023; Tan et al., 2024).

Intelligent packaging systems are based on stimuli-responsive materials and sensing architectures, such as indicators, sensors, and biosensors, that detect physicochemical changes associated with food quality. Colorimetric indicators, often derived from natural pigments such as anthocyanins, respond to pH variations or volatile compound concentration by undergoing visible color changes, enabling real-time monitoring of freshness (Mohammadalinejhad et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2024, 2023). Embedding these indicators within biopolymer matrices improves their stability, sensitivity, and compatibility with food systems. For example, starch/chitosan-based films incorporating anthocyanin-encapsulated amylopectin nanoparticles not only improved film mechanical strength and barrier properties but also enhanced color stability and ammonia sensitivity, highlighting the potential of biopolymer-based pH-responsive films for real-time monitoring of food freshness (Zheng et al., 2023). In addition, sensors, made from inorganic and organic materials, detect various analytes, such as antimicrobials, antibiotics, and freshness indicators, via visible color changes (Mazur et al., 2024). The incorporation of colorimetric sensors into biodegradable films, such as those made from starch (Wu et al., 2026; Zheng et al., 2023), chitosan (Zeng et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2024, 2023), or alginate (Mohammadalinejhad et al., 2023; Shi et al., 2024), enhances packaging functionality while maintaining environmental sustainability. Advanced sensing and data systems, for example, radio-frequency identification (RFID) and QR codes further provide traceability and real-time information about storage conditions across the supply chain (Qian et al., 2021; Saggin et al., 2019). Colorimetric and chemical sensors embedded with such digital technologies, enable continuous monitoring and improved decision-making during distribution and storage (Chiu and Yang, 2024).

In summary, active and intelligent packaging systems are governed by the coupling of transport phenomena, interfacial interactions, and stimuli-responsive behavior within biopolymer networks. The integration of smart sensors and bioactive compounds into food packaging allows producers to enhance food safety, reduce waste, and improve the overall consumer experience. The use of intelligent packaging also helps strengthen supply chain management by enabling real-time monitoring of product quality and storage conditions. Recent advances in Industry 4.0 technologies such as AI, blockchain, nanosensors, and 3D printing, among others, are driving the transition toward Packaging 4.0 (Hassoun et al., 2023; Zhao et al., 2025). These innovations enhance packaging efficiency, traceability, and sustainability.

7 Key insights and outlook

Biopolymers, including proteins, polysaccharides, and their complexes, are increasingly central to sustainable food innovation due to their ability to integrate functionality and sustainability within a single material platform. Across diverse applications, a unifying principle emerges: biopolymer structure, ranging from molecular interactions to network architecture, governs key functional properties such as interfacial activity, diffusion control, rheology, and barrier performance. These properties determine macroscopic outcomes, including interfacial stabilization, bioactive encapsulation, bulk structuring and texture development, fat mimicry, and food packaging and preservation. This structure-function linkage provides a practical framework for the rational design of multifunctional food systems.

The performance of biopolymer-based systems can be engineered across multiple length scales. At the molecular level, tailoring of biopolymers through conjugation or crosslinking enhances interfacial adsorption and stability. Colloidal design, such as Pickering and particle-dominated systems, enables the creation of robust emulsions and delivery vehicles. At the macroscopic level, gels, emulsion gels, oleogels, and composite networks impart desirable texture, water and fat binding, and sensory fidelity. These design strategies also facilitate bioactive encapsulation for controlled release, and support emerging technologies such as 3D food printing, where rheology and network formation govern printability and post-print stability. In packaging, biopolymer-based edible coatings, biodegradable films, and active or intelligent systems offer pathways to extend shelf life, enhance safety, reduce food waste, and decrease reliance on petroleum-derived materials, while enabling features such as antimicrobial or antioxidant action and freshness indication. In addition, the valorization of agri-food byproducts strengthens waste-to-value approaches within a circular bioeconomy framework.

Despite these advances, a key challenge remains translating the lab-scale proof of concept into consistent, scalable solutions. Variability in raw materials, particularly for upcycled byproducts, limitations in moisture and gas barrier performance, and trade-offs between mechanical durability and biodegradability continue to constrain performance. The development of scalable, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly extraction and modification processes that maintain functionality without compromising clean-label status is needed. Regulatory considerations are also critical, as materials must comply with frameworks such as those of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), including requirements for Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status and migration limits. For active and intelligent systems, additional safety evaluation is required due to the potential release of bioactive compounds, which must meet toxicological and migration criteria. These constraints directly influence material selection, formulation design, and scalability.

From an industrial perspective, economic feasibility remains a major determinant of adoption. Sensory compatibility and stability under realistic processing, storage, and distribution conditions must be ensured alongside performance optimization. Future progress will depend on addressing key research gaps in scalability, performance consistency, regulatory compliance, and industrial feasibility, while integrating structure-property relationships with application-relevant prototypes, regulatory and techno-economic analyses, and life-cycle assessment. With such interdisciplinary progress, biopolymers can transition from promising substitutes to foundational enablers of resilient, low-waste, and environmentally responsible food systems.

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