Abstract
Elaeocarpus ganitrus, a traditionally sacred tree of Ayurvedic medicine is emerging as a valuable bioresource with considerable potential to contribute to sustainable food systems. This review is a comprehensive study of its phytochemical profile, which contains alkaloids (e.g., rudrakine and elaeocarpine), flavonoids (e.g., quercetin, kaempferol), phenolics (e.g., gallic acid, caffeic acid), and tannin. These bioactive molecules are the basis of its significant antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and neuroprotective activities. This article addressed the use of E. ganitrus fruit pulp and seed extracts as natural preservatives in food systems in which it helps to increase the shelf life of perishable food via inhibiting the growth of microorganisms and oxidative spoilage as natural preservatives, although synthetic preservatives are widely used. Conventional formulations such as E. ganitrus milk and decoctions are repackaged as functional food ingredients or nutraceuticals, which can have health benefits related to stress management, metabolic health, and immunity. In addition, the review also notes sustainable agro-forestry utilization of the tree in stabilizing the soil, controlling erosion, improving biodiversity and providing livelihood to smallholder farmers in Himalayan and Southeast Asian areas. In the context of the circular economy, the valorization of the seed waste as biodegradable fillers for the manufacture of eco-friendly packaging for food is mentioned as a possible solution. Apart from these, various problems are also addressed, including the uniformity of extracts, certification for application in food, lack of a large-scale cultivation and clinical validation. Above all else, it emerges as a promising multipurpose tree having potential for integration into sustainable food systems, thereby enhancing biodiversity, soil health, and resilient agro-forestry systems.
1 Introduction
The large evergreen tree Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb, which is native to the Himalayan area and few parts of Southeast Asia, has long been worshiped in Ayurvedic medicine and Hindu spiritual practices (Ravi Padma and Don, 2025; Singh and Singh, 2024). The seeds of the trees are traditionally used in meditation and healing, yet the role of modern scientific research has greatly broadened their applicability beyond the cultural symbolism (Mukherjee, 2025). Current research points to E. ganitrus exhibits a rich phytochemical profile, including alkaloids (rudrakine and elaeocarpine), flavonoids, phenolics, and tannins, which all play a role in the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities of this plant (Kumar et al., 2021; Ravi Padma and Don, 2025). The leaves also possess a very comprehensive and promising phytochemical profile. The preliminary screening has demonstrated the presence of flavonoids, phenolic acids (gallic acid), tannins, alkaloids, saponins and triterpenoids (lupeol/ursolic acid). In addition to the phenolics and flavonoids (gallic acid, quercetin), analyzed by HPTLC, HPLC and LC–MS, fruits and seeds (Seeds/Endocarp) also contain alkaloids (elaeocarpine, isoelaeocarpine, rudrakine), phenolics, flavonoids (including quercetin), tannins, steroids, triterpenoids, carbohydrates and others. In addition to the above, the fruit extracts exhibited a high amount of total phenolics (~232 mg GAE/g) and flavonoids (~91 mg QE/g) in the alcoholic extracts. But the bark and other parts contains less phytochemicals (e.g., phenolics, flavonoids) as compared to leaves and fruits (Sharma S. et al., 2021).
The increasing demand for sustainable food systems has spurred considerable interest in plant-based bioresources which can be used as natural preservatives and functional food ingredients. The extracts of E. ganitrus have demonstrated significant potential to increase food shelf life by reducing microbial growth and oxidative spoilage as well as providing a substitute to synthetic food additives, which can leave behind toxic residues (Rajashekar et al., 2026). Traditional preparations, like E. ganitrus milk and decoctions, which have long been a part of ayurvedic tradition, are under re-evaluation as nutraceuticals with hypoglycemic, neuroprotective, and anti-stress potential (Ghosh et al., 2025).
In addition to these, the tree benefits soil stabilization, erosion, and biodiversity, as well as offers economic benefits to smallholder farmers in the Himalayan and Southeast Asian areas (Kashyap et al., 2013). In addition, biodegradable fillers in polymer composites can be valorized by using seed waste, which can provide new opportunities to produce eco-friendly food packaging materials.
Despite of demonstrating promising applications of seeds and leaves, multiple technical challenges must be addressed to be incorporated in food grade, regulatory barriers to nutraceutical approval, and little data on large-scale cultivation are barriers to its adoption by mainstream food systems. To fill these gaps, interdisciplinary research is needed to bridge the gap between traditional knowledge on the one hand and modern food science on the other, as well as to be consistent with circular economy models and climate-resistant food production.
Therefore, E. ganitrus can not only be identified as a culturally important plant, but also as a versatile source of sustainable food production, decreased carbon footprint, and world food security. The previous reviews have mainly addressed the traditional medicinal uses, phytochemical profile, and pharmacological activities of E ganitrus in disease management, whereas this review specifically examines the untapped potential of this tree as a multifunctional bioresource for sustainable food systems. This review will cover an important knowledge gap in the literature, which will be the connection between the sacred medicinal tree and the modern food security, functional food development and circular bioeconomy strategies, all taking into account the phytochemical, pharmacological and sustainability-related characteristics to evaluate the usefulness of E. ganitrus in modern food systems and offer the future research and application prospects.
2 Phytochemical profile
Elaeocarpus ganitrus exhibits a rich and diverse phytochemical profile characterized by bioactive metabolites, that justifies medicinal and food-related applications (Banu et al., 2024). The alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, and tannins are especially abundant in the seeds and fruit pulp, and each of them has a specific biological activity (Singh et al., 2015). The phytochemical profile reveals interesting part-specific variations of the tree, highlighting its potential as a rich source of secondary metabolites with various bioactive properties. The seeds are especially high in indolizidine alkaloids like elaeocarpine, isoelaeocarpine, elaeocarpiline, rudrakine, tannins, quinones, coumarins, gallic acid and ellagic acid. The fruit epicarp has a similar alkaloid, tannin, and quinone composition, however, with increased amounts of flavonoids and phytosterols. Leaves are an excellent source of phenolic acids and flavonoids, and by using advanced chromatographic techniques such as HPTLC, HPLC and LC–MS, gallic acid and quercetin are always the most abundant components, supported by ellagic acid, catechins and triterpenoids including lupeol and ursolic acid. The extracts of bark are rich in alkaloids, tannins, quinones, coumarins and glycosides, which provide a distinctive set of cytotoxic cucurbitacins. Basically, the phenolics, flavonoids, and unique alkaloids contribute to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and possible anticancer properties.
The recent developments in analytical phytochemistry (HRLCMS profiling, HPTLC fingerprinting and standardized QC with markers) have facilitated precise characterization and authentication of extracts from different parts. Such advancements enable the creation of specific formulations employing nutraceutical principles, standardization of herbal medicines and bio-guided isolation of novel indolizidine derivatives for CNS and metabolic disorders and helps to transform this conventional tree into a scientifically validated phytopharmaceutical source (Ghosh et al., 2024).
Flavonoids and phenolic compounds are not only known to have antioxidant ability but also help in neutralizing free radicals, which in turn alleviate oxidative stress in food systems, extending their shelf life (Kaushik et al., 2023). Tannins, however, also have antimicrobial effects, preventing the proliferation of foodborne pathogens and having the benefit of natural preservation. Figure 1 has provided a schematic representation of the key phytochemical classes and their functional roles including food preservation, nutraceuticals and food packaging applications.
Figure 1
A number of studies have shown that, E. ganitrus seed extract and fruit pulp extract can be successfully used to minimize lipid peroxidation and microbial contamination of food items, making them an environmentally-friendly replacement of synthetic preservatives (Parveen et al., 2025; Deshmukh and Gaikwad, 2024). In a quantitative study on seeds (3-, 4-, and 5-faced), it has been demonstrated that, significant face-dependent changes (p < 0.05), on other hand, 5-faced mostly demonstrated higher content of total phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, anthocyanins, and alkaloids, while 4-faced shown good content of ascorbic acid and tannin. Total phenolic content in ethanolic extract of the fruit exhibited approximately 232 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g, with significant concentration of flavonoid (Sharma P. et al., 2021).
Additionally, the synergistic effect of these phytochemicals increases their effectiveness, and thus whole extracts can be more effective than individual compounds. This richness in phytochemicals does not only justifies it is traditional application as an ayurvedic medicine but also justifies it is usefulness as a functional ingredient in food systems. The major phytochemicals and their activities has been illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1
| Phytochemical class | Plant part (major sources) | Key compounds | Approximate quantity (reported) | Reported activities | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alkaloids | Seeds, Epicarp, Leaves, Bark | Rudrakine, Elaeocarpine, Isoelaeocarpine, Elaeocarpidine | Variable; higher in 5-faced seeds (significant face-wise variation, P < 0.05) | Neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, potential hypoglycemic, antidepressant effects | Sudradjat and Timotius (2022); Tripathy et al. (2020); Sharma S. et al. (2021) |
| Flavonoids | Seeds, Epicarp, Leaves | Quercetin, Kaempferol, Catechin, Epicatechin, Naringenin | 18.58–91.42 mg QE/g extract (fruit ethanolic: ~91.42 mg QE/g); higher in 5-faced | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective | Khan et al. (2021); Hasnat et al. (2024); Hardainiyan et al. (2015); Kamisah et al., 2023 |
| Phenolics/ Phenolic acids | Leaves | Gallic acid, Caffeic acid, Ferulic acid, Ellagic acid, Cholorogenic acid | 56.79–232.24 mg GAE/g extract (fruit ethanolic: ~232.24 mg GAE/g); higher in 5-faced | Antioxidant, antimicrobial, supports food preservation, potential hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory | Hernandez-Miranda et al. (2025); Rahman et al. (2021); Li et al. (2023); Bisi et al. (2024) |
| Tannins | Seeds, Epicarp, Leaves, Bark | Hydrolyzable tannins | Higher in 4-faced (significant variation); specific values ~0.4–0.7 mg/g range in seeds | Antimicrobial, antioxidant, astringent, natural preservative in food systems | Hoque et al. (2025); Camarda et al. (2026); Fraga-Corral et al. (2021); Irawan et al. (2024) |
| Other bioactives | Epicarp, Bark, Fruit (Overall) | Glycosides, Phytosterols, Sterols | Not widely quantified | Immunomodulatory, adaptogenic, supportive of metabolic health | Vezza et al. (2020); Ghanbari-Gohari et al. (2025); Lopez-Angulo et al. (2022) |
Major phytochemicals in Elaeocarpus ganitrus and their reported activities.
3 Traditional uses and functional food potential
3.1 Ayurvedic and historical context
Elaeocarpus ganitrus is an ayurvedic medicine which has a long history of applications. The seeds which were treated as holy seeds were believed to have healing vibrations and were commonly given as medication in conditions of stress, anxiety and cardiovascular diseases. In many ayurvedic books, the preparations like milk (seeds that had been soaked overnight in milk) and decoctions (seeds boiled in water) that were taken to induce calmness, balance metabolism, and immunity has been discussed (Kulkarni et al., 2023). These practices highlighted the holistic approach of ayurveda, where food and medicine are intertwined to support both physical and mental well-being. Apart from the seeds, the leaves, which are known for their antibacterial properties, were used for wounds, as juices and decoctions for fever, sunstroke, headache and skin diseases; bark and leaf preparations were used as blood purifiers and as remedies for epilepsy, liver disorders, jaundice and mental disorders, such as stress, anxiety and depression since many decades. The fruit pulp or whole fruit were used in the treatment of health issues like bronchitis, neuralgia, migraine, cough, sedative, and analgesic, either alone or in combination with honey or milk, enhancing overall vitality and cognition (Ravi Padma and Don, 2025).
3.2 Elaeocarpus ganitrus milk and decoctions as functional foods
The most notable applications of E. ganitrus are milk infusions and decoctions, which were used as health promoting drinks since many decades. The milk infusion is usually prepared by leaving seeds to soak overnight in milk, elaeocarpine was thought to confer neuroprotective and adaptogenic effects, and aid people in dealing with stress and mental exhaustion. The water-soluble phytochemicals (tannins and phenolics) in decoctions are prepared by boiling the seeds in water and were linked to hypoglycemic activity and digestive health (Pathaw et al., 2022). These drinks are an example of the early nutritional products, which do not necessarily provide nutrition but instead provide a therapeutic effect, showing how the traditional practices anticipated the modern nutraceutical ideas.
3.3 Contemporary nutraceutical applications and incorporation in functional food systems
Researchers are exploring the use of E. ganitrus extracts in the development of nutraceutical products like fortified beverages, herbal supplements, powders, and snack bars. It is an ideal inclusion in products aimed at oxidative stress because of its antioxidant properties of flavonoids and phenolics, and its antimicrobial effect aids immune health (Kumar et al., 2021). Alkaloids such as rudrakine and elaeocarpine gives additional value, providing anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties. Such applications are harmonized with the current consumer trends that prefer plant-based, natural, and sustainable health products that make E. ganitrus a promising constituent in the nutraceutical industry.
3.4 Elaeocarpus ganitrus as a natural preservative for food safety and shelf-life extension
Tannins and phenolics has great antimicrobial properties which inhibits the proliferation of foodborne pathogens, whereas flavonoids are antioxidants which delay lipid peroxidation and oxidative spoilage (Kalogianni et al., 2020). This two-fold effect renders E. ganitrus extracts effective natural preservatives and thus eliminate the need to use synthetic additives. Plant-based compounds, such as polyphenols, terpenes has biocidal effects against bacteria or herbivore repellence. Two of the important classes of secondary metabolites are the phenolic and polyphenolic groups. Some of the subgroup chemicals that are significant in the inhibition of the activity of microbes include flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, phenols. Phenol is a chemical that contains hydroxyl (-OH) groups. The number and distribution of phenol groups in the substance are related to their relative toxicity to microbes (Teshome et al., 2022).
As a natural phenolic compound, it also has been proven that gallic acid (GA) has a tremendous preservation effect. GA has a strong antioxidant effect that eliminates free radicals and a good antimicrobial effect against plethora of microorganisms due to its ability to disrupt cell membranes (Gangadharan et al., 2024). The Figure 2 summarizes major cellular targets and mechanism including inhibition of DNA/RNA/protein synthesis, disruption of cell membrane by targeting the phospholipid bilayer and membrane proteins, membrane protein modification & proton (H+) leakage followed by intracellular pH decrease and coagulation of cytoplasmic constituents at the end.
Figure 2
By extending shelf life and ensuring food safety, E. ganitrus contributes to reducing food waste and enhancing sustainability in food systems.
3.4.1 Elaeocarpus ganitrus extracts as natural antioxidants for shelf-life extension in perishable foods
As discussed in previous paragraph, among the most promising food applications of E. ganitrus is that, it can be used as a natural antioxidant. E. ganitrus extracts containing flavonoids and phenolic compounds have been reported to neutralize free radicals effectively, thus alleviating oxidative stress in food matrices (Manisha et al., 2025). The property comes in handy especially in the preservation of the shelf life of perishable goods like dairy products, oils, and meat, which are vulnerable to lipid peroxidation. Food producers can decrease the use of synthetic preservatives such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) by adding E. ganitrus -derived antioxidants as they are commonly criticized as being potentially harmful to human health. Therefore, E. ganitrus presents a safer, plant-based alternative, which would satisfy consumer demands of clean-label products.
3.4.2 Antimicrobial properties of Elaeocarpus ganitrus extracts for food safety and pathogen control
Besides antioxidant activity, E. ganitrus extracts possess a remarkable antimicrobial potential. The tannins and alkaloids (mostly found in seeds and pulp) helps to inhibit the growth of common foodborne pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (Ullah et al., 2020). This antimicrobial effect enhances food safety besides reducing food spoilage, thereby reducing food wastage. The extracts of E. ganitrus can find their practical application as a food additive such as in edible coating, beverages, or in the packaging system of food products in order to provide a secondary layer of microbial protection. Such innovations can be particularly relevant in regions with limited access to refrigeration, thus natural antimicrobial agents could play a crucial role in maintaining the quality of food (Figure 3).
Figure 3
3.5 Elaeocarpus ganitrus in food packaging applications
The byproduct of seeds that is most often discarded after extraction, can be an alternative source for preparing biodegradable fillers to polymer composites as a sustainable packaging option (Fragassa et al., 2024). This innovation will not only contribute toward reduction of environmental pollution, but also insert E. ganitrus into wider sustainability systems. By connecting the ancient applications and the current environmental-friendly ones, E. ganitrus is an example of how plant-based resources can be used to manage health and food security issues, as well as environmental problems. Subsequent to the bioactive compound extraction, the leftover seed material may be made into biodegradable fillers to be used as polymer composite (Mohd Basri et al., 2021). Eco friendly packaging of foods can be produced out of these composites and this will lessen reliance on petroleum-based plastics. Not only such packaging solutions help deal with environmental issues of plastic pollution, but they are also able to generate value using the by-products of agriculture, which aligns with the idea of the circular economy. The plant is a holistically beneficial crop to sustainable food production, as it is introduced into food preservation and packaging systems. In a similar research, the research team assessed the viability of employing E. ganitrus seeds as a filler in environmentally sustainable composite materials. Polymer epoxy resin (ER) was hand lay-up with varying loading concentrations and sizes. The filler was found to have an effect on the mechanical properties of the composites. Thermal characteristics of filler/epoxy composites were studied by thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). Tensile strength (TS) and flexural strength (FS) of the 10 wt% 100-mesh filler were highest at 42.30 MPa and 87.4 MPa, respectively, compared to other filler sizes and loading concentrations. Meanwhile, the highest impact properties have been achieved with 20 wt% of filler with 0.436 J. The findings of this research demonstrated that, the type and concentration of the filler had a great influence on the mechanical properties of the material. The findings are informative and can be used in different industrial settings. Furthermore, incorporating 10% up to 30 wt% RSF in epoxy composites has brought more thermal stability than virgin epoxy. It demonstrated that, the filler has greater decomposition temperatures compared to the epoxy matrix. It possesses a potential sustainable reinforcement of polymer composites and it has tremendous potential toward meeting environmental issues and conforming to a range of sustainable development objectives (Irawan et al., 2024).
In another research, it has been demonstrated that the caffeic acid can prevent UV radiation and can therefore be used in preserving light sensitive food products such as oils, dairy and beverages. Its environmental responsiveness, varying properties in response to pH, light or microbial activity also opens the door to smart packaging materials that can detect food freshness and safety. Nonetheless, although Caffeic acid has a potential to be multifunctional, a number of technical issues need to be resolved before caffeic acid can be broadly implemented in commercial food packaging processes (Sun et al., 2025).
3.6 Bridging traditional knowledge with modern scientific validation for global food systems
The functional food potential of E. ganitrus is the combination of ancient ayurvedic knowledge and scientific validation. Traditional medicine focused on the curative and spiritual worth of herbal medication but modern studies are providing a chemical clarification of the effects, citing antioxidant, antimicrobial and neuroprotective activities (Balkrishna et al., 2024). This bi-heritage confirms its role in the world food systems whereby the cultural authenticity and scientific credibility are equally considered. The incorporation of historical knowledge in food science gives rise to a multidimensional bioproducts, representing E. ganitrus as a solution toward the current most challenging issues like health, sustainability and food security.
4 Applications of Elaeocarpus ganitrus in modern food systems
4.1 Elaeocarpus ganitrus-based functional foods and nutraceutical formulations for health promotion
The phytochemical abundance of E. ganitrus has rendered it a good component in functional foods and nutraceuticals. The ancient recipes, like E. ganitrus milk and decoctions, are undergoing redesigning into contemporary products, such as herbal teas, dietary supplements, and fortified snacks (Ananthanarayan et al., 2019). The formulae capitalize on its anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and neuroprotective characteristics to address lifestyle-related diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and stress-related diseases. The modern research combined with traditional wisdom can make E. ganitrus -based nutraceuticals fit the increasing global demand of plant-based health products to preventive healthcare.
The ability of E. ganitrus extract to function as a nutraceutical and fortification has been documented in many scientific studies. By following the thread of previous discussion, the fruit extracts have shown total phenolic content (up to 232 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid content (up to 91 mg QE/g), providing strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties ideal for natural food preservation and health promoting formulations. The bioactive compounds extracted from seeds (gallic acid, quercetin, alkaloids) have been researched for the development of nutraceutical capsules, functional beverages (Velu et al., 2025; Kumar et al., 2021).
4.2 Sustainable agro-forestry practices and their role in food system resilience
Production of E. ganitrus helps to provide sustainable agro-forestry systems with ecological and socio-economic advantages. E. ganitrus, has potential to generate a source of supplementary income to smallholder farmers, thus improving livelihood security by stabilizing the soil and preventing soil erosion in the region (Dissanayaka et al., 2024). Its integration into agro-forestry models will not only enhance the resilience of the food system but also help mitigate climate change due to its encouragement of carbon sequestration and sustainable land use.
4.3 Integration of Elaeocarpus ganitrus into circular economy models for global food security
The multifunctional use of E. ganitrus as an antioxidant and antimicrobial, as well as nutraceutical and biodegradable packaging, puts it in a central position in the models of the circular economy (Ritika Bora et al., 2024). It minimizes resource wastefulness and environmental damage by glorifying all components of the plant even the seed waste. Its use in food systems helps in maintaining food security in the world as it reduces food spoilage, increases food shelf life, and enhances sustainable agricultural systems. Moreover, it is a great example of how traditional knowledge can be converted to scalable, green technologies that will solve the modern issues in health, sustainability, and food production (Table 2).
Table 2
| Aspect of connection | Description / key findings | Relevance to global food system and security | Supporting references |
|---|---|---|---|
| Agroforestry and land use integration | The rudraksha trees spaced by a wide distance (≥10 m × 10 m) can be intercropped with the seasonal food crops (maize, peanuts, vegetables, ginger, turmeric) during the early years, and perennials. Appropriate to degraded lands and community forestry. | Diversifies agricultural system, strengthens resilience, maximizes land use in cash (seeds) and food production. Promotes sustainable intensification and decreases the strain on monoculture staples. | Nurlia et al. (2017); Khadka et al. (2021) |
| Economic and livelihood benefits (NTFP) | Main product: seeds which are of great market demand and export value (to India, Nepal, China). Non-perishable, offers a stable income. Driven farmers encouraged by assured markets. | Bead income uplifts food purchasing power of households, alleviates food insecurity due to poverty. Allows making investments in food production or nutrition. Conforms to NTFP approaches to rural livelihoods. | Paneru (2024); Shrestha et al. (2020) |
| Fruit pulp and minor edible uses | Green fruit pulp is fresh and sour, which stimulates appetite; kernel is said to be sweet, cooling, emollient according to Ayurveda. Blue-violet fruits are acidic and taste acidic. | Small contribution to local diets or appetite stimulation (beneficial in malnutrition situations). Introduces food variety in domestic gardens/agroforestry. | Ravi Padma and Don (2025); Krishna et al. (2019) |
| Medicinal and health support | Ayurveda/folk medicine Unheated: hypertension, diabetes, stress/anxiety, asthma, epilepsy, etc. Unheated: alkaloids, flavonoids (quercetin, gallic/ellagic acids), antioxidants. Demonstrates a sedative, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory effect. | Enhances health, cognitive and productivity of farm/laborers during food systems. Favors the treatment of diet related illnesses. Contributes to the use of nutrients indirectly. | Ravi Padma and Don (2025) |
| Sustainability and ecosystem services | Evergreen tree that is flexible to subtropical/tropical environment. The community forestry potential in degraded regions; part of biodiversity and soil conservation in agro forestry. | Encourages diversified agro systems which cushion against climate shocks in world food production. Improves long-term sustainability of food system through tree-based agriculture. | Nurlia et al. (2017) |
Contribution of E. ganitrus in food systems.
5 Sustainable agro-forestry and environmental benefits
5.1 Elaeocarpus ganitrus cultivation as a model for climate-resilient agro-forestry systems
Cultivation of E. ganitrus provides an agro-forestry model that blends ecological resilience with economic viability. Also, the wide root of the tree helps to bind soil and prevent rolling down in hilly areas like the Himalayas (Bhadouria et al., 2023). Since this is not a monoculture farming like in present times, E. ganitrus -based agro-forestry promotes climate-resilient agriculture with lesser vulnerability to extreme weather events and better potential for carbon sequestration. This makes its cultivation a strategic resource for the regions strained by land degradation and climate change issues.
5.2 Biodiversity enhancement and ecosystem services provided by Elaeocarpus ganitrus agro-forestry
The E. ganitrus trees render an immense number of ecosystem services. Their inclusion in mixed farming systems helps with nutrient cycling, pollination management, and increased water retention in the soil (Atapattu et al., 2025). When intercropped with crops like ginger, turmeric, and leafy vegetables farmers develop diversified agro-forestry systems leading to reduced incidence of pest attack and improved farm productivity. A success in the richest diversity of species, which strengthen balance and help guarantee that a sustainable food system will remain.
5.3 Socio-economic benefits for smallholder farmers and rural livelihoods
Elaeocarpus ganitrus is a dual purpose crop to the smallholder farmers in the Himalayas and Southeast Asian areas; it is a source of ecological protection and livelihood. Their seeds that were once valued as spiritual and medicinal, have new markets in nutraceuticals and eco-friendly packaging markets (Usman et al., 2023). This income-diversification reduces the dependency on individual cash crops, and financial stability. In addition, it is a farming that needs fairly minimal inputs hence accessible to resource-limited farmers but also helping to develop the rural set-ups.
6 Challenges and limitations in the integration of Elaeocarpus ganitrus into food systems
6.1 Standardization of Elaeocarpus ganitrus extracts for food-grade applications
The unvalidated extraction processes are the largest issues of E. ganitrus in food and related applications. Various studies have not yielded the same phytochemicals as a result of varying solvents, length and conditions of the extraction. Such variability poses a challenge to obtain reproducible results and develop food-grade formulations. The bioactive concentration of the products based on E. ganitrus can vary without standardized practices, which have an impact on the efficacy and safety. Validated protocols are therefore, necessary to scale up and extract, purify and quantify compounds such as rudrakine, elaeocarpine and phenolics to be regulatory-acceptable and industrial scalable (Pai et al., 2022).
6.2 Regulatory hurdles in approving Elaeocarpus ganitrus-derived food additives and nutraceuticals
The shift of E. ganitrus in traditional medicine to contemporary food systems is encountering a lot of regulatory obstacles. Food safety authorities and related bodies demand a lot of toxicological and clinical information before they can approve new additives or nutraceuticals. At present, it does not have detailed safety dossiers, such as long-term toxicity and human clinical trials. In vitro and in vivo toxicological studies constitute integral components of the safety evaluation of products which are to be used in food applications such as food additives, novel foods, packaging migrants, contaminants and nutraceuticals. In vitro models including Caco-2 intestinal permeability assays, HepG2 hepatocyte cytotoxicity tests, bacterial reverse mutation (Ames) assays, and micronucleus assays used to test genotoxicity are high throughput, cost-efficient, and ethically sound screening assays for mechanisms of toxicity, such as oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, endocrine disruption, and cellular uptake. These systems are increasingly fine-tuned through the use of advanced 3D organoids, co-cultures and human derived cell lines to better replicate gastrointestinal physiology and minimize uncertainties in interspecies extrapolation. In vivo complementary studies are performed in a rodent or non-rodent species according to OECD guidelines (e.g., OECD 407, 408, 451) to assess systemic toxicity, subchronic/chronic effects, reproductive and developmental toxicity, carcinogenicity and toxicokinetics. The studies provide essential information about absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME), no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAEL) and acceptable daily intake (ADI) values.
Incorporating in vitro mechanistic information with in vivo dose–response data, as well as in silico modeling and adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) can aid in making evidence-based regulatory decisions based on science, e.g., EFSA, FDA, JECFA. These strategies also follow the 3Rs principle (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) and help to reduce the number of animals used without compromising the safety of the consumer (Beatriz and Nolwenn, 2022; Fortin and Szilagyi, 2024).
This lack of regulatory documentation retards its adoption by mainstream food industries. Additionally, it makes commercialization at the global level complex because there are dissimilarities in international regulatory frameworks since depending on the region, e.g., the European Union, the United States or Asia, there are different standards. This gap needs to be filled with the help of concerted research and alignment of safety tests.
6.3 Limited large-scale cultivation and supply chain constraints
The other drawback is that, E. ganitrus has limited availability since large scale farming of the tree is not practiced. The tree is mostly cultivated in the Himalayan and Southeast Asian zone frequently in the smallholder agro-forest systems. Although, this is beneficial to biodiversity and rural livelihoods, the supply is still limited in the case of industrial-scale applications. The seasonality, sensitivity to climatic conditions and insufficient structured cultivation methods also contribute to instability in supply chains. In order to satisfy the increasing demand, there is a need to develop systematic cultivation approaches, better propagation methods, and climate resistant farming designs. Unless it works on these limitations, then it will be limited to niche usage instead of becoming widely used.
6.4 Knowledge gaps in clinical validation and consumer acceptance
Despite of having potentially promising phytochemical and pharmacological potential, it does not have much clinical evidence related to health benefits. Most of the studies are preclinical, either in vitro, or in animals, with few human studies. This casts a cloud of doubt on dosage, effectiveness, and potential negative effects in other populations. Moreover, cultural perception can affect consumer acceptance as E. ganitrus has traditionally been linked with spirituality, instead of food. In order to remove these hurdles, there is a need of more interdisciplinary studies to gain credibility and acceptance in the global markets (Ravi Padma and Don, 2025).
6.5 Technical challenges in incorporating Elaeocarpus ganitrus into food matrices and packaging systems
The enrichment of food products and packaging materials with E. ganitrus extracts has technical problems. The stability of bioactive compounds under processing, storage and cooking has yet to be elucidated. Phenolics and flavonoids can be examples of foods that break down during high temperatures, diminishing their antioxidant activity. Likewise, utilization of polymer composites with seed waste necessitates the optimization of mechanical properties that would guarantee that it is durable and safe in food packaging. To meet these challenges, there is a need to employ advanced extraction methods. Quantitative extraction yields along with different extraction methods has been summerized in Table 3 from different previous studies. Apart from these, encapsulation, nano-formulation, and composite material design can also be helpful to retain functionality and maintain consumer safety (Periyasamy et al., 2025; Irawan et al., 2024).
Table 3
| Plant Part | Extract / Method | Extraction yield (% w/w) | Total phenolics (mg GAE/g) | Total flavonoids (mg QE/g) | Other compounds | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fruit | Ethanolic (Soxhlet) | 28.65 | 232.24 | 91.42 | Alkaloids, saponins, glycosides present | Hardainiyan et al. (2015) |
| Seed | Methanol (sequential extraction) | 1.85 (from 4.15 g extract) | - | - | Rich in alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins | Tripathy et al. (2020) |
| Seed | Hexane | 2.51 | - | - | - | Tripathy et al. (2020) |
| Seed | Hydroalcoholic / Methanolic | - | High (abundant) | High | Gallic acid, Quercetin (HPTLC/HPLC) | Geetha et al. (2019); Sharma et al. (2023) |
| Seed | Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) | 2.37 | - | - | Vanillin, β-sitosterol, squalene, fatty acids | Balkrishna et al. (2025) |
| Seed (hexane) | Conventional solvent | 4.59 | - | - | - | Balkrishna et al. (2025) |
| Leaves | Ethanolic | - | 19.85 | 9.69 | - | Khushwaha et al. (2023) |
| Fruit/Seed | Various | 10.33 (alcohol extractive value) | - | - | - | Rai et al. (2023) |
Quantitative extraction yields and phytochemical content from E. ganitrus.
GAE, Gallic Acid Equivalents; QE, Quercetin Equivalents.
6.6 Balancing traditional knowledge with modern scientific rigor
Last but not least, there is a critical limitation of the disconnecton between traditional knowledge and scientific validation. Though ayurveda and cultural practices offer important information on the uses of E. ganitrus, the same needs to be converted into evidence-based models to be accepted by the scientific and regulatory circles. The excessive use of anecdotal evidence without strict validation may lead to loss of credibility. On the other hand, the rejection of traditional knowledge can disregard the useful applications. To balance, there must be collaboration in research and acknowledgment of cultural heritage and compliance with current standards of reproducibility, safety and efficacy (Rai et al., 2019; Table 4).
Table 4
| Key challenge | Description |
|---|---|
| Standardization and quality control | Bioactive compounds (e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids) can vary between plant parts, growing conditions, and extraction conditions, thus it is challenging to obtain a consistent product quality to use safely as a food/nutraceutical. |
| Lack of toxicological profiling and clinical validation | The lack of extensive safety research, bioavailability information and extensive clinical trials inhibits food safety and efficacy evidence, making it difficult to accept as a food ingredient or supplement. |
| Regulatory and approval barriers | The situation with food safety regulations (e.g., in the case of nutraceuticals or functional foods) is complicated because it is more of a religious/medicinal identity and its data is not widely mainstream, which slows down commercialization. |
| Agroforestry adoption and scalability issues | Being a low-yielding fruit tree (3–7 + years to fruit) traditionally applied in traditional systems, there are policy gaps, inadequate technical expertise of farmers, lack of market connections to fruit/oil, labor scarcity, and land fragmentation to integrate into modern food/agroforestry. |
| Limited market awareness and supply chain development | The edible fruit pulp or seed oil (outside seeds) is not in high commercial demand, which limits the supply chains; and cultural emphasis on spiritual purposes further limits the scaling as a food crop or ingredient. |
Major issues surrounding E. ganitrus integration into food systems.
7 Future prospects of Elaeocarpus ganitrus in sustainable food systems
The future of E. ganitrus in food systems is to be incorporated into the circular economy systems where all the plant parts are used to reduce waste and get the most out of it. The bioactive-rich extracts are applicable in preserving food and nutraceutical, whereas the waste of the seed can be converted into biodegradable fillers to use in environmental-friendly packaging. This two-use model is an example of resource efficiency, with less impact on the environment and the establishment of new economic activities. Food systems can move beyond the linear produce-consume-discard systems to regenerative cycles, which are more focused on sustainability by integrating it into the framework of the circular economy.
Elaeocarpus ganitrus farming should embrace climate-resilient farming methods to satisfy the increasing demand. They consist of agro-forestry systems, irrigation methods that use less water, and soil conservation methods that will increase productivity and reduce the risks of climate change. Farm outputs can be diversified by combining it with other crops including turmeric, ginger, and legumes to reduce pest occurrence, and enhance the resilience of farmers. These measures ensure not only supply chains but also support the overall goals of climate adaptation making E. ganitrus one of the exemplary crops in sustainable agriculture in the threatened areas.
The fact that it can help decrease food spoilage, increase shelf life, and offer green packaging solutions directly benefits global food security goals. It can assist in providing safe and nutritious food by reducing post-harvest losses and the use of synthetic preservatives, which makes food resources more efficient in resource-constrained areas. Its nutraceuticals also increase prevention of health care, against lifestyle diseases that plague food and health systems, especially at the global scale. As the research continues, E. ganitrus can be a cornerstone of sustainable food technologies that can both enhance nutrition and remain safe and environmentally sustainable.
In turn, this objective requires interdisciplinary cooperation of food scientists, pharmacologists, agronomists, and policymakers. These individuals are placed in a position to perform research aimed at standardization of extraction procedures, carry out clinical trials as well as scale up of cultivation models. In this regard, there is a need to promote positive policies that can be used to simplify the regulatory procedures, thus encouraging the establishment of sustainable farming methods and the encouragement of eco-friendly packaging options.
Collaboration at the international level will be necessary in order to create regulations on global commercialization of products of E. ganitrus, and thus uplift the status of all products of this plant in the international level.
The future of E. ganitrus will depend on how well traditional ayurvedic wisdom is combined with the modern scientific innovations. Although its main interest is in the field of medicine, the contemporary approval by phytochemical research and clinical trials provides it with a certification to be used worldwide. This synergistic strategy helps to maintain cultural authenticity and at the same time makes it an established bioresource. It has the potential of adding to the sustainable food systems in the world, because it balances between modernization needs and respect of traditional practices.
8 Conclusion
Elaeocarpus ganitrus is an outstanding biotic resource that can be used to blend Ayurvedic knowledge with the modern scientific knowledge. It has a remarkable phytochemical profile, namely, high levels of alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, and tannins, thus forming a solid basis in its use as food preservation, nutraceuticals, and packaging that is environmentally friendly. This species offers a chance to revive old formulations which have been sidelined in the cultural and spiritual circles by appreciating the preparation like decoction and E. ganitrus milk as health-promoting dietary constituents in one way or another.
Due to sustainability, E. ganitrus is planted in agro-forestry systems which offer livelihood security and diversity (agro-biodiversity) especially in the Himalayan region and South East Asia. The idea of converting the waste of seeds into biodegradable packaging material can be viewed as an exemplary illustration of the key postulates of the circular economy, as there is no element of the plant that should be deemed unnecessary and can be used to reduce the effects of environmental degradation. Such versatile inputs make it a holistic solution to some of the most urgent challenges related to food security, resources management and climate resilience.
However, there are still significant obstacles. The nutritional profile and bioactive potential differ from one study to another. High protein and mineral content in the fruit pulp were reported in some studies, and relatively low protein and mineral content were reported in few studies, probably because of variations in geographical origin, fruit maturity and analytical method. Likewise, differences in the concentration of phenolic compounds and the antioxidant capacity reported in various studies indicate that there is a great need for standardization of procedures and for its systematic comparison. The challenges related to the realization of standardization, meeting the regulatory standards, production at a small scale, and the provision of shortcomings in clinical testing have to be overcome before it can be widely integrated into the world food systems. Interdisciplinary inquiry, supportive policies, and international collaboration will be imperative to tackle these impediments. Conclusively, E. ganitrus does not just serve the purpose of a traditional medicinal plant but it has become an important source of sustainable food production, reduced environmental footprint, and world food security. The combination of cultural heritage and modern science can also make it one of the key elements of green food technologies and provide the generations to come with the health and sustainability.
Statements
Author contributions
PG: Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. RS: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. Anuradha: Writing – original draft. RKS: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. VS: Writing – original draft. DB: Writing – original draft. AM: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the members of all the respective affiliated institutions for their continued support of research activities and resources provided.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2026.1853884/full#supplementary-material
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Summary
Keywords
circular economy, Elaeocarpus ganitrus, food packaging, functional foods, natural preservatives, phytochemicals, sustainable agro-forestry
Citation
Ghosh P, Saxena R, Anuradha, Singh RK, Srivastava V, Bharti D and Mitra A (2026) A comprehensive review on Elaeocarpus ganitrus: phytochemical potential and sustainable applications in food systems. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 10:1853884. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2026.1853884
Received
12 April 2026
Revised
16 May 2026
Accepted
21 May 2026
Published
02 June 2026
Volume
10 - 2026
Edited by
Rakesh Kumar Gupta, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India
Reviewed by
Liliana S. Celaya, National University of Misiones, Argentina
Akshay Patil, KLE College of Pharmacy, India
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Ghosh, Saxena, Anuradha, Singh, Srivastava, Bharti and Mitra.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Abhirup Mitra, abhirup.m@invertis.org; abhirupmitra.ft@gmail.com
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.