Frozen food packaging: recent technological advances and future perspectives

Abstract

Packaging plays a pivotal role in preserving the quality, safety, and marketability of frozen foods, whose demand continues to rise with changing consumer lifestyles and socioeconomic trends. Since high-moisture foods such as fish and meat are highly perishable, appropriate freezing and packaging strategies are essential to maintain freshness, minimize quality deterioration, and ensure consumer safety throughout storage and distribution, while considering consumer preference for minimally processed products that retain their natural attributes. Conventional frozen food packaging is often associated with limitations such as inadequate barrier performance, uncontrolled ice crystal formation, freezer burn, and drip loss, all of which can adversely affect product quality. This review provides a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of emerging frozen food packaging technologies, highlighting recent advances in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), high-pressure processing (HPP), gas-flushing techniques, active and intelligent packaging systems, phase change materials, advanced insulation materials, and smart cold-chain monitoring technologies. Particular emphasis is placed on their roles in improving product stability, extending shelf life, reducing energy consumption, and enhancing supply-chain efficiency. By critically evaluating these innovations and identifying current research gaps, this review offers valuable insights into the future development of sustainable and high-performance packaging solutions for frozen foods.

1 Introduction

Food freezing is among the most versatile and convenient preservation methods that provide long-term storage without affecting the nutritional quality of the foods. Generally, the freezing technique describes the process by which the ambient temperature is reduced to below the “freezing point” (Köprüalan Aydın et al., 2023). “Frozen” refers to the subsequent state in which the product is preserved, i.e., the preservation of food at a low temperature to maintain the cold chain (Köprüalan Aydın et al., 2023; Mohan et al., 2023). The growth of ice crystals during frozen storage physically alters the internal structure of the food product. Cucumbers and other salad vegetables are extreme examples, where freezing completely destroys the structures of food and leads to increased drip loss and thawing of perishable foods. Quick freezing and the production of smaller ice crystals offer certain quality benefits but are not applicable to all food materials (Peters, 2019). However, minimizing freezing times can be advantageous for frozen storage by reducing energy consumption, improving yield quality, and maintaining fresh produce. Moreover, freezing prevents microbial growth in foods and provides a long-term shelf life without using preservatives. Additionally, this technique allows flexibility during processing, meaning products can be transported and distributed while maintaining their best condition (Guillot et al., 2023). It is also highlighted that some advanced packaging innovations are already making ripples in the current research area and will probably have a huge effect on the frozen food sector in the future.

Frozen food (especially perishable foods) has strong water activity and is enriched with unsaturated fats and non-protein nitrogenous molecule chains. These products require immediate packaging to retain their quality and safety (Guillot et al., 2023; Ding et al., 2023). Consumers also currently demand fresh and minimally processed food items that maintain primary qualities. Consequently, packaging for frozen food is crucial because it protects the food from adverse environmental effects by serving as an inert substance (Mohammadian et al., 2020). Adequate packaging is essential to maintain food safety and sensory qualities. Active and intelligent frozen food packaging are the most significant developing technologies among the many breakthroughs in packaging (Ahmed et al., 2017; Gupta et al., 2022). Frozen food packaging technologies include modified atmosphere packaging (MAP); vacuum packaging; high-pressure packaging (HPP); vacuum skin packaging, smart food packaging with moisture control devices and gas detection systems, antioxidant and microbial-resistant packaging, intelligent packaging with freshness indicators, time–temperature indicators, and leakage indicators, food-safe coating and films, organic packaging, retort pouch packaging, and other advanced packaging technologies used separately or in combination to maximize preservation potential. The type of packaging chosen for frozen food depends on the specific food product, marketplace, the packaging philosophy of the company, and existing equipment (Young et al., 2023). Consequently, selecting a packaging medium is more difficult than simply choosing the most affordable and consumer-friendly box. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive assessment of recent advances in frozen food packaging, with a particular focus on technologies designed to enhance product quality, safety, and shelf life. The review examines the principles, applications, advantages, and limitations of conventional and emerging packaging approaches, including gas-flushing techniques, modified atmosphere packaging, high-pressure processing, active and intelligent packaging systems, and advanced cold-chain solutions. In addition, relevant legislative aspects and sustainability considerations are also discussed. The review addresses the following key questions: (i) how innovative packaging technologies can improve the quality and stability of frozen foods, (ii) how combined packaging strategies can enhance preservation effectiveness, and (iii) what challenges and future opportunities exist for the development and commercialization of frozen food packaging systems.

2 Types of packaging material for frozen foods

Packaging materials play a significant role in preserving frozen meals from damage and degradation. Packaging materials protect frozen items from moisture and gas to prevent the oxidation of fats and the degradation of pigments and triglycerides in frozen prawns and Salmonoids. Developments in combination with novel approaches to food preservation techniques have revolutionized frozen food packaging supplies. Some important materials and films used for frozen packaging include polyamide (nylon), polyester (PE), polyethylene (PE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) (Sarkar and Aparna, 2020). However, the upcoming generation of frozen packaging materials will be produced from abundant resources that are considerably biodegradable. (i) Biopolymers can be directly obtained from plant resources such as polysaccharides like starch and proteins like wheat gluten (Gupta et al., 2026b; Pipliya et al., 2025). (ii) Polylactate is a bio-based polyester polymerized from lactic acid monomer, derived through the fermentation of carbohydrate feedstock, and is currently used as frozen packaging material. (iii) Polyhydroxyalkanoates, also known as polyhydroxybutyrate, are copolymers of hydroxyl-butyrate (HB) and hydroxyl-valerate (HV) which are genetically produced from microorganisms or transformed bacteria. These copolymers are more widely recognized by the generic brand name “Biopol.” These three categories are already used as potential packaging materials for frozen foods (Sarkar and Aparna, 2020; Wani et al., 2023a; Ashok et al., 2016).

Active containers are commonly employed in frozen food packaging and contain active agents that can maintain the sensory and organoleptic attributes of a product to assure its quality (Fang et al., 2017). They contain natural antimicrobial activities that can enhance the storage life of packaged products by preventing the growth of foodborne pathogens and rancidity reactions. The composition of packing material incorporates the active agents’ formulations to release or absorb odor, flavor, CO₂, O₂, ethylene, and antioxidants for specially preserved frozen foods (Alves et al., 2023). However, paperboard, molded pulp, two-pack, four-pack tear-apart containers, and PET-coated paperboard containers cover a significant number of expanding segments in the market for containers. Additionally, such packaging materials lend themselves to desirable microwaveability, printability, and heat stability characteristics (Chong et al., 2022). The benefits of using this variety of packing supplies for consumers are economic savings from reduced packaging expenses and flexibility in serving sizes.

Crystallized polyester (crystallized polyethylene terephthalate [CPET]) trays are used to package a variety of frozen meals. These trays can be used for cooking, serving, and packaging food, among other things (Tyagi et al., 2021). Recent trends reported that poly(lactide)/poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate)-based blown film showed adequate performance for frozen food packaging. According to this research, 20 and 40% PLA blends were revealed as good candidates for frozen and chilled food packaging applications, respectively, with a proper mechanical barrier balance and ductility (Pietrosanto et al., 2020). Moreover, packaging material made with polycarbonate and polyetherimide coextruded in a five-layer arrangement is utilized for precooked meals and side dishes. This five-layer tray is also known as dual-ovenable, which is currently developed with appealing attributes such as anti-stick properties that resist the adhesion of food to the inside of the tray and temperature regulation that allows it to be taken out of ovens without the need for potholders (Bhagwat, 2020).

3 Characteristics of packaging material for frozen foods

3.1 Temperature control and its importance and challenges

Frozen packaged foods (such as perishable and semi-perishable items) are mostly time- and temperature-sensitive in nature, so they require proper treatment in terms of preservation, packaging, and transportation—in other words, throughout the cold supply chain (Abedi-Firoozjah et al., 2023). Temperature is the most crucial component to prolong or maintain the lifespan of frozen foods. A temperature-controlled supply chain provides the essential facilities or required technologies to maintain the quality and quantity of frozen foods. Proper temperature control and management are very crucial in delivering perishable foods to consumers and ensuring the frozen products are in good condition and safe to consume (Abedi-Firoozjah et al., 2023; Mercier et al., 2017). However, temperature regulation in a cold chain maintains the physiochemical properties, sensory, and nutritional qualities of frozen foods (Mercier et al., 2017). Perishable foods lose up to 10% of vitamin C per day when stored at 2 °C; whereas, vitamin C levels might rise by more than 50% when kept at 20 °C. A temperature-controlled supply chain is referred to as a “cold chain,” and temperature management and monitoring are essential to maintain an uninterrupted and long-lasting cold chain. Fresh items are particularly prone to degradation due to their limited shelf life and perishability. Moreover, temperature control is essential throughout the entire logistics process, especially for frozen commodities (Phillips et al., 2016). Consequently, enhancing the quality control and tracking system of the cold-chain distribution process, as well as effectively controlling the safety and quality of packaged food, has become a priority for both the government and businesses (Osman et al., 2023).

Effective temperature control is the most crucial and straightforward method to postpone the deterioration of frozen foods. Furthermore, storage at the optimum temperature prevents perishable foods from weakening or changing in color and texture. Additionally, it reduces unfavorable alterations in metabolism, transpiration of moisture, and loss of nutrient accessibility due to pathogenic invasion. Temperature is another conveniently controlled aspect for achieving the quality and safety of goods. The frozen product is kept at its ideal temperature as soon as feasible after packaging (Mercier et al., 2017; Abedi-Firoozjah et al., 2023). Moreover, frozen foods are susceptible to temperature abuse, so temperature control and monitoring are important for maintaining the safety and quality of goods. Additionally, it is important to be aware that microbes like listeria, Yersinia, and Aeromonas could flourish at low temperatures. Controlling temperature effectively slows down bacterial development, preserves quality, and reduces spoiling. To overcome temperature-related problems, accurate temperature management is very crucial to guarantee that the final products achieve their best destination in their best conditions (Sheng and Wang, 2021; Tavares et al., 2021). However, all parties involved need to use improved quality assurance techniques to satisfy client demands and establish a competitive point of difference. So, automated and effective monitoring and management of all operations are necessary for successful cold-chain logistics to provide packaged frozen products (Tavares et al., 2021).

3.2 Freezer burn and frost formation: causes and prevention

Freezer burn is a surface desiccation fault that may develop when frozen tissues are stored without a sufficient moisture barrier. It appears as a dehydrated opaque surface. Increased oxygen interaction with food surfaces due to freezer burn causes oxidative reactions that permanently change the color, texture, and flavor of frozen products (Du et al., 2022). Freezer burn occurs when ice evaporates from the surface region of the tissue. Consequently, exposed items constantly lose water as vapor because the internal water vapor pressure of ice is more elevated than the surrounding conditions. As long as there is a difference in vapor pressure, moisture cannot easily return to its initial form, and sublimation occurs (Köprüalan Aydın et al., 2023). According to various studies, the physical properties and characteristics of ice crystals, such as size, shape, and size distribution, majorly influence the quality of frozen products. Understanding these ice crystal qualities is crucial to the development of processes associated with super chilling and partial freezing, as well as for proper process design (Lee et al., 2022). Moreover, uncovered frozen items can be sprinkled, coated, or frosted with a thin layer of ice to prevent drying. Additionally, freezer burn is avoided if a product is packaged in tightly fitting, water- and vapor-proof material since evaporation is prohibited. The effects of freezer burning and post-thaw exudates (also known as drip loss), which frequently restrict the quantity and storage duration of partly frozen goods, can be minimized with proper packaging, such as vacuum packaging, in which meals are wrapped inside a skin-tight container, to avoid deterioration and evaporative moisture loss from the exterior of the food (Majumder and Balange, 2023). Previous studies claimed that the dimension formation of ice particles during the super chilling operation and the microstructure alteration of vacuum-packaged foods during preservation should be taken into account because these factors have a significant impact on the food texture and various characteristics of super chilled products. The formation of ice crystals while being stored can lead to protein denaturation, less moisture-holding capacity, and enzymatic degradation. Therefore, it is crucial to realize that freezer burn is one of the key considerations while storing frozen food items (Banerjee and Maheswarappa, 2019).

3.3 Physical durability and structural integrity of frozen food packaging

Mostly, the water fraction of frozen products is affected by freezing and thawing. The muscle fiber of animal frozen products (meat, fish) contains water, which creates compartments in the tissue and makes the process more difficult. The homeostasis of the entire meat system is disturbed because the concentration of the residual solutes increases when the water freezes (Tapia et al., 2020). The physical durability of the meat is impacted by changes in the immediate environment of the muscle fibers. However, previous scientific literature claimed that all three processes—freezing, frozen storage, and thawing—decreased the water-holding capacity of meat. According to reports, the alteration and/or denaturation of the protein, as well as the disruption of the muscle fiber structure, are associated with loss of water-holding capacity (Hassoun et al., 2020; Hughes et al., 2020).

Moisture content, protein denaturation, oxidation of lipids and protein, and color are all factors that may impact the physical durability and structural integrity of frozen products. The amount of moisture in meat tissue varies with freezing and thawing. There are many approaches to assessing moisture as a quality feature in frozen items, consisting of total water content, water-holding capability, dripping loss, and freeze loss. Postmortem transpiration of moisture in products is unavoidable because of the pH drop, adenosine triphosphate loss, and steric consequences resulting from myofibril shrinking imposed by rigor mortis and training. These elements collaborate in order to release moisture that was trapped and fixed by proteins into the intercellular spaces. After that, the cytoplasmic and extracellular compartments receive the expelled moisture (Tapia et al., 2020; Hassoun et al., 2020). However, it has long been believed that protein denaturation after freezing could be caused by an increase in internal ionic force when water migrates to the extrinsic areas (Zhang Y. et al., 2022). Previous studies reported that myosin decomposition and troponin tropomyosin complex formation resulted from thawing and frozen preservation, which decreased the level of Ca²⁺-ATPase and increased Mg²⁺-EGTA-ATPase activation. Additionally, some studies demonstrated a substantial relationship between protein oxidation and protein denaturation (Tapia et al., 2020; Hughes et al., 2020). The increased chemical reactivity during frozen storage is caused by the freezing of the water component, which also increases the concentration of the solute both within and outside of cells. The formation of ice crystals, depending on their size and location, will disrupt the muscle cell, which will cause the release of digestive enzymes from the mitochondrial cells and lysosomes into the sarcoplasm (Li et al., 2022). Currently, high-pressure freezing and thawing techniques have recently received major attention in research on freezing and thawing mitigation strategies. The commercial utilization of these methods is still disrupted. Although according to scientific studies, the novel freezing and thawing techniques bring about an upward trend in the durability of meat and other frozen products.

3.4 Moisture barrier and leak resistance in frozen food packaging

The market for frozen goods is growing as the living standard of consumers increases. Consumers demand that frozen food be secure and free of microbial contamination. The progress of frozen food storage, transportation, and sales needs to occur in a frozen condition, and the quality, safety, and nutritional content of frozen food should be ensured during processing, storage, and transportation (Feng et al., 2020). Paperboard is a type of extensively used packing material that is completely ecologically friendly and biodegradable. It is made of plant material, which leads to a good hydrophilic nature and contains a higher amount of hydroxyl groups. Water vapor can diffuse through vacant areas in the paper as well as condense through the cell walls of the fibers (Ordoñez et al., 2022). Corrugated board packaging readily absorbs water vapor and liquid, which causes its compressive strength to decrease. Therefore, paperboard needs to be processed to create corrugated paperboard with waterproofing and moisture-resistant qualities. By modifying the wettability of the paperboard surface using measuring agents or applying a hydrophobic coating, a water-resistant or moisture-proof protection layer can be created. Pulp obtained from disposed paperboard will have water- and moisture-proof properties (Ordoñez et al., 2022; Gaikwad et al., 2016). Moreover, coating is the thick, uninterrupted layer of moisture-resistant material currently applied to the exterior of the paperboard. The coating layer has water and moisture-proof properties, and wax, tung oil, and varnish are currently used as rich coating materials and leak resistance materials for frozen packaging. A variety of emulsion moisture barrier materials and moisture barrier materials produced from leftover plastic packaging material components were also used (Gaikwad et al., 2016). In order to decrease moisture permeability, waxes are the most effective materials used in frozen packaging materials. Paraffin wax can be used in a molten state to provide an inhibitor against water molecules. Although lipid coatings offer a high moisture barrier for frozen and long transportation packaging, they also have some drawbacks, including brittleness, browning of paperboard, a lack of uniformity, and the occurrence of pinholes and fractures in the exterior of the coating area. The coating on the surface of the packaging material will be a layer that is moisture and waterproof after the evaporation of water (Woch et al., 2022). However, paperboard and other aluminum foil-based packaging material is difficult to separate from the coated material when the discarded packaging film is to be reused (Ordoñez et al., 2022). Therefore, research is increasingly being done to provide environmentally acceptable, renewable, and biodegradable moisture- and water-proof coating materials for frozen packaging.

3.5 Product identification and labeling requirements

A growing and pervasive issue is the fraudulent misdescription of products, which includes the inclusion of numerous undeclared species in ready-to-cook frozen goods, and the routine adulteration of perishable goods with an unauthorized combination of food ingredients (Fiorino et al., 2018). Furthermore, the production and use of dried salt fish and traditional salt fish have been quickly surpassed by the popularity of deep-frozen fish fillets and ready-to-eat or simple-to-prepare items. Indeed, the current pattern indicates an upward trend in consumer preference for and intake of frozen fish, fillets, and sashimi (cooked-to-eat seafood that is finely sliced and can be acquired at supermarkets, fish markets, and home delivery services), while fresh fish intake is steadily declining. However, the possibility of species replacement on the market has grown due to global seafood commerce and processing. Financial laundering, medical risks, and the illicit trading in rare species are a few consequences of species replacement (Delpiani et al., 2020; Mendes et al., 2017). European regulations on the tracking and labeling requirements of frozen goods require that the food chain be truly identifiable in order to inform consumers through mandatory product labeling and to create a “safety net” based on the identification of these products at every stage of manufacturing and marketplace distribution. The demand for packaged frozen goods in international trade is rising, and given the significance of the trade in processed perishable and semi-perishable goods, frozen goods authentication is among the most crucial parts for product quality and security (Di Pinto et al., 2016).

It is very crucial to properly label packaged frozen foods in order to avoid financial fraud and safeguard public health. Date tagging is frequently accessible but may also be closed (closed used for monitoring items at retail locations, as well as for recall and accountability), terms and application differ greatly throughout the global community (Delpiani et al., 2020). The disparity in date labeling terms and uses contributes to significant consumer and industry misperception, which results in significant destruction and wastage of food, improper use of scarce availability, unwarranted economic stress for both consumers and the food industry, and may also pose a risk to food safety with regard to frozen foods. There are over 50 different kinds of food labels for dates available, such as “Best before” and “Used by.” The antimicrobial safety of frozen food products is not frequently indicated by date labels, which usually serve as indicators of food quality or freshness (Wani et al., 2023b). The majority of consumers, despite their reliance on date labels to assess the safety of their food, have incorrect or insufficient understandings of these labels, which leads them to frequently discard food after the date on the label has expired. According to an analysis of customer preferences for frozen junk food, customers heavily rely on package date labels to judge whether the foods are safe to eat or not. Essentially, food waste occurs because consumers refuse to purchase commodities after their “best by” dates even though there are no food safety issues with them (Wani et al., 2023a, 2023b; Aschemann-Witzel et al., 2017).

3.6 Regulatory compliance for packaging of frozen food

Smart and dynamic packaging is the most promising packaging for frozen food products. In Europe, the evaluation of overall migration limits (OMLs), specific migration limits (SMLs), and toxicological properties, as well as smart and functional packaging, must adhere to the laws governing materials that come into contact with food (Drago et al., 2020). According to European legislation 1935/2004/EC, every substance designed to come into direct or indirect interaction with food must be produced according to good manufacturing practices so that, under normal and predictable circumstances, its ingredients do not migrate toward a food item in quantities that could endanger human health, alter the composition of food, or interfere with a food item’s organoleptic attributes (Restuccia et al., 2016). Ordinance EU No. 10/2011 and directive (EU) 2016/1416, which modify and correct the previous regulation, are particularly relevant in the field of packaging standards, among national and international regulations specific to types of substances (Ong et al., 2022). Additionally, Article 4 of Order 1935/2004/EC covers labeling, which must specify that inedible ingredients and smart materials cannot convey data about the aspect of food that could mislead consumers. Furthermore, dynamic, smart materials and objects intended to come into contact with food are covered by Regulations issued by 450/2009/EC (Ong et al., 2022; Drago et al., 2020). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conducted a risk and safety evaluation on each of the components on the standard, which included the movement of functional agents, the migration of their reaction substances, and the assessment of hazardous characteristics. Similarly, in the United States, food-contact materials used for frozen foods are regulated under Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). FDA specifically recognizes “Frozen storage (no thermal treatment in the container)” as a distinct condition of use when evaluating food-contact substances and packaging materials. Packaging materials intended for frozen food applications must therefore be safe under these storage conditions (U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 2017). Additionally, in China, frozen foods are regulated under National Food Safety Standards such as GB 19295–2021, which establishes definitions, technical requirements, and safety criteria for quick-frozen foods. In addition, packaging materials intended for food contact must comply with GB 31603–2015, which specifies hygienic requirements for the production, packaging, storage, and transportation of food-contact materials and products (National Health Commission State Administration for Market Regulation, 2021; National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China, 2015). Furthermore, active and intelligent packaging for frozen food can be classified as migratory and non-migratory. The former suggests that an active substance acts without non-volatile or volatile packaging materials intentionally transferring to food (Reddy et al., 2023). However, the active agent for packaging purposes might be deliberately intended to leach into the packaged food. Due to the overall migration limit being exceeded, the legislation suggests two exceptions. Therefore, the quantity of active components produced should not be taken into account when assessing total migration if the active function is not a unique feature of the passive material. Furthermore, the movement of the components may surpass the designated migratory threshold, and the amount of the emitted active compounds supplied in food conforms with the applicable food rules (Han et al., 2018). Furthermore, legislation 1333/2008/EC addressing direct food additives must be followed by approved active substances that are purposefully released into food, which provides a technical effect (Drago et al., 2020). Additionally, the active ingredients must be disclosed on the label with the phrase “do not eat” or a symbol in order to avoid the mistaken ingestion of the non-edible component (Ong et al., 2022).

3.7 Shelf life and storage considerations for frozen food packaging

Frozen packaging technology is a traditional preservation method that prevents most breakdown processes and prolongs shelf life. The industry has made extensive use of it to store and preserve perishable, non-vegetarian food items (fish, seafood, meat, beef) (Giannakourou and Dermesonlouoglou, 2024). Increasing availability of meat products for human consumption might help meet the growing demand for ecologically friendly frozen packed shellfish and smoky meat products, as well as customer demands for readily available, nutritious seafood that fits with the current demanding lifestyle. For international markets, frozen packing appears to be crucial for preserving meat quality and postponing microbiological deterioration in order to increase product availability. However, previous research has assessed the overall impact of frozen and chilled preservation techniques as an approach to extending the lifespan of beef (Luzardo et al., 2024). This study reported that the conjunction of vacuum sealing with antimicrobial agent storage at (1.38 ± 0.21 °C) for 90–120 days for chilling, then frozen for 92 days at −20 °C, represented a suitable storage strategy to extend frozen beef meat shelf life without detrimental impact on its quality after an aging period. The frozen vacuum packaging showed greater oxygen transmission rate (OTR) and moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR), but the packaging material was not mitigated by the antimicrobial agent. The impact of aging determines the rise in tenderness of meat products. Current research claimed that the Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values dramatically dropped when steak was defrosted and stored for a period of 28 days (Seong et al., 2017). Moreover, frozen packaging barrier properties and frozen storage are influenced by sterol content, oxidative stability, phytosterol, and phenolic content. In a present lifestyle, bread is a widely consumed food with a short shelf life due to rapid loss of flavor and moisture, heightened toughness, fracturability, and reduced solubility and flexibility. Additionally, moisture moves from the bread crumb to the crust, and the amount of moisture in the crumb decreases overall. To overcome such issues, there are several methods for extending the shelf life of goods, including lowering the temperature by using the best optimal packaging (Giannou and Tzia, 2007; Novotni et al., 2011). Eventually, some new technologies such as bake-off, partially baked bread, and frozen dough processes are consequently arising. Based on the literature survey, the phenolic content did not reduce in the transparent PE-HD laminated package for frozen bread and dough due to their blue color and less transparency in comparison to laminated PET-PE/EVAL/PE packaging film. However, when bread and dough were stored in the assessed packaging, the total sterol content did not significantly change or contribute to oxidation (Novotni et al., 2011).

3.8 Environmental impact of frozen food packaging

Currently, frozen food packages were selected because of rapid growth observed in the frozen food industry. Growing demand has been arising for innovative frozen food packaging solutions that extend product shelf life and minimize detrimental effects of packaging on the environment to reduce negative environmental impacts. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, and laminated aluminum foil plastic are the most common petroleum and metal-based frozen food packaging materials, which lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions (De Agostini, 2021). Most frozen food package production, consumption, and disposal lead to negative environmental impacts (99% of packaging plastics are a main source of fossil fuel). Additionally, the majority of paper-based cardboard packages are produced using wood pulp, and LDPE-based film is the greatest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which raises global warming potential and speeds up climate change, one of the biggest problems facing the modern world. According to a previous study, LDPE-based packaging material has an 11-fold smaller environmental effect compared to packaging material composed of cardboard (Kliaugaite et al., 2018). This study also claimed that production, weight of product, use, and waste disposal are mainly responsible for the global environmental effect. Moreover, thousands of cardboard and LDPE-based packages with the heaviest weight (51.6 kg) resulted in the largest environmental effect. Laminated film packaging was found to have the highest greenhouse gas emissions during the disposal phase, accounting for 100% of the emissions in the landfill scenario. There are several factors, such as avoiding waste management emissions, reducing process energy emissions, and the forest carbon sequestration benefits of recycling paper, to reduce environmental impact. Recycling is also one of the processes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions when other forms of packaging had negative values during the disposal phase (van Ewijk et al., 2021; Lorang et al., 2023; Kliaugaite et al., 2018). Currently, biodegradable polymer-based multilayered frozen packaging is identified as a challenging solution by industrial and academic research to reduce terrestrial and marine ecosystem impact. The situation is further complicated by the fact that certain products (such as fruit juice popsicles, frozen desserts, sauces, and dairy products) must be stored in a refrigerator or freezer after the hot filling stage, so it is imperative that the packaging material continue to function well even at low temperatures (Lorang et al., 2023). Recent academic research developed PBS/PLA and Ecovio/PLA-based (tailor-made extruded blown films) packaging material which is suitable for frozen products at low temperature. The physiochemical qualities of the multilayer formations were discovered to be central when compared to the separate exterior and inactive layers, and the design of the system had an impact on those properties. The film maintains adequate O₂ resistance qualities after a hot packing trial that replicates circumstances found on an actual packing path. Lastly, the total movement parameters supported its acceptability for purposes requiring interaction with food, such as extended-term frozen food preservation and hot packing.

4 Recent advancements in packaging of frozen foods

4.1 Active and intelligent packaging technologies for frozen foods

Active packaging is a newly invented packaging substance that offers an active function in addition to inert confinement and safeguarding for the frozen product. Typically, active and intelligent packaging includes the ability to perceive or measure the characteristics of the produce, the interior of the packaging material, and the transportation environment for frozen foods (Ghoshal, 2018). Conventional food packaging often serves as passive barriers that separate food from environmental containments, while active packaging encourages the packaging material to take an active role in improving frozen food conservation. This activity could result from specific characteristics of the wrapping supplies or from active substances that are incorporated into the inactive membrane to serve as absorbent, releasing agents, and transmitters that are essential for long-term food preservation (Drago et al., 2020). The primary distinction is that active packaging changes the immediate surroundings to prolong the duration of food storage, while intelligent packaging simply monitors the condition of the product (Table 1).

However, active and intelligent packaging are two distinct approaches connected by the introduction of novel concepts for frozen foods. The quality and freezing efficiency of frozen meals have significantly improved through the application of intelligent technologies and their underlying principles. Intelligent packaging technologies have been increasingly integrated into cold-chain logistics, warehouse management, and frozen food processing to facilitate real-time monitoring, traceability, and quality assessment (Zhong et al., 2017). Furthermore, techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), digital simulation, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, and ultrasound contribute to the development of intelligent food packaging systems. When combined with mobile internet, cloud computing, and data storage technologies, these systems enable enhanced monitoring, data management, and decision-making throughout the frozen food supply chain (Bosca et al., 2013). Furthermore, chemical sensors, electrochemical-based sensors, optical-based sensors, and biosensors (electrochemical-based biosensors, optical-based biosensors) are designed to measure temperature, pH, and light exposure for long-term frozen food storage, as shown in Figure 1. Additionally, researchers are becoming more interested in using recyclable and sophisticated detectors (such as edible detectors) for intelligent packaging as a result of the necessity to check food grade and packaging integrity (Vanderroost et al., 2014). In brief, edible electronic sensors would enable safe food monitoring by providing real-time information on the condition of food to the final consumer or at any point in the supply chain. The invention of food-compliant devices, which are positioned close to the food rather than directly attached to it, will provide information not available to existing sensors. A recent study verified an edible sensor with great sensitivity to gaseous amines, allowing consumers to evaluate food freshness in real time (Andre et al., 2022). However, an edible temperature sensor based on a galvanic and ionochromic cell was reported in another study. As a result, the device can be used in the supply chain in a variety of ways: As a sensor, it can measure the duration of exposure to temperatures above the threshold, and as a detector, it can provide a signal that there was exposure to temperatures above the threshold. A device like this can guarantee that frozen food is handled properly and is safe to eat. Consumers could use it as a detector to make sure the food was properly frozen along the entire supply chain, while workers in the supply chain might use it as a sensor. As a result, the edible defrosting sensor, which consists of both the sensor and the galvanic cell, can identify defrosting events by using straightforward color changes. The duration of exposure to the defrosting temperatures can also be ascertained by measuring such a color shift. It is possible to guarantee that frozen goods are handled correctly from the first icing to the final customer by incorporating such a sensor into the cold supply chain. As a result, this device is also accessible as a revolutionary time–temperature indication that operates at much lower temperatures by using the defrosting phenomenon as a trigger (Ilic et al., 2022).

Figure 1

Active and intelligent packaging in Europe must comply with regulations pertaining to products that interact with food, which include assessing toxicological qualities, specific migration limits (SMLs), and overall migration limits (OMLs) (Drago et al., 2020). According to Commission Regulation 450/2009/EC, active and intelligent packaging supplies and items intended to interact with food are specifically covered (Drago et al., 2020). It is permitted to place the intelligent component outside of the package, and a functional barrier that stops substances from migrating may prevent interaction with food. The marketing, safety, and logistical benefits offered by smart packaging applications suggest that demand for intelligent and active packaging is drastically increasing in the food and frozen food markets and may even dominate in the upcoming years (Table 2).

4.2 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) for frozen foods

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a commonly used method to preserve fresh foods and increase their storage life. Modified atmosphere fresh produce packaging depends on the natural interaction of two processes—the respiratory efficiency of commodities and the permeability of the packaging films—to alter the atmosphere inside the packages. This is currently combined with frozen packaging technology for long-lasting storage of raw food. Respiration and permeation occur concurrently due to their dynamic nature; thus, the MAP system must be designed and appropriate films chosen to obtain the ideal atmosphere as soon as feasible and maintain it for as long as possible. MAP has been a proven technology to address the growing consumer demand for fresh frozen food (Mangaraj et al., 2009). This technique involves placing fresh raw food in a gas-impermeable vessel with separate or combined gases to generate a customized environment that inhibits the growth of microorganisms and enhances specific food-grade attributes. Oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and nitrogen (N₂) are the most frequently used gases in MAP due to their distinct functions (Table 3). Particularly, oxygen can prevent the growth rate of anaerobic microbes and can combine with deoxymyoglobin (present in muscle) to create oxymyoglobin, which provides frozen meat a longer shelf life. Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, has several functions: it prevents bacteria from growing and reproducing, as well as preventing the respiration of meat cells while being packaged, which prolongs storage life. Additionally, inert N₂ is frequently employed to insulate against O₂ and prevent the oxidation of lipids and proteins to keep wrapping vessels balanced by avoiding shrinkage from CO₂ depletion (Yan et al., 2024; Mangaraj et al., 2009).

Nowadays, different techniques such as cold temperature preservation, ice preservation, substantially frozen storage, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), and combinations thereof are frequently used to preserve marine goods. According to Bak et al. (1999), glazed cold-water shrimp (Pandalus borealis) packaged in atmospheric air and stored at −17 °C under retail conditions exhibited significantly greater lipid oxidation, color fading, and texture deterioration than shrimp packaged under a nitrogen-flushed modified atmosphere. While TBARS values in MAP-treated samples remained relatively stable during the first 9 months of frozen storage, air-packaged shrimp showed a significant increase in oxidation. Furthermore, MAP combined with protection from light and temperature fluctuations maintained acceptable product quality for up to 12 months of frozen storage, demonstrating the effectiveness of oxygen exclusion in extending shelf life and preserving sensory attributes (Bak et al., 1999). In another recent study, modified packaging based on chitosan/wampee seed oil for golden pompano fillets observed the inhibition of lipid hydrolase and lipoxygenase, which prevented the oxidative deterioration of unsaturated fatty acids. Simultaneously, the fillets showed slight degradation of drip loss, appearance, and alterations in color, which helps preserve and prolong the storage life of fillets throughout the freeze and cold preservation period (Wang et al., 2023). However, anaerobic respiration is undesirable due to the higher amount of ethanol, acetaldehyde, and other chemicals produced, leading to undesirable odor and color. So, recent developments in modified atmosphere packaging have emerged with cutting-edge technologies and newly invented preservation technologies (e.g., high pressure, ultraviolet radiation, cold plasma, and high-voltage electrostatic) used as frozen packaging to maintain physiochemical and sensory attributes of fruits and vegetables (Fang and Wakisaka, 2021). Usually, to achieve the appropriate storage environment, the concentration of CO₂ is elevated and the concentration of O₂ is reduced relative to ambient air. For instance, Zhang Y. et al. (2022) compared atmospheres containing 30% CO₂/70% N₂, 50% CO₂/50% N₂, and 70% CO₂/30% N₂ for golden pompano fillets and reported that the 70% CO₂/30% N₂ treatment exhibited the best overall preservation effect, followed by 50% CO₂/50% N₂, by effectively inhibiting protein degradation and maintaining freshness. Compared with air packaging, MAP extended the shelf life of the fillets by approximately 4–5 days, with MAP-treated samples remaining microbiologically acceptable after 30 days of storage, whereas air-packaged samples exceeded the acceptable microbial limit by day 26 (Zhang X. et al., 2022). Therefore, in recent years, extreme gas concentrations in MAP have shown good results with potential for use as frozen food packaging (Yan et al., 2024).

4.3 Nanotechnology in frozen food packaging

The use of nanotechnology to produce nanoparticles has generated an enormous amount of attention in the food packaging industry (Gupta et al., 2024). The combination of edible coatings and nanomaterials with nanoparticles is superior to conventional packaging items for storing frozen food products and maintaining quality standards. Adding nanoparticles to a polymer matrix may impact the mechanical and physical characteristics of packaging material by enhancing its strength, durability, flexibility, barrier, and reuse qualities, making it easily usable as a transportation packaging material for frozen food (Jurić et al., 2024). Smart packaging with nanosensors is one approach in nanotechnology that can enhance frozen food safety and quality through packaging. Nanotechnology provides significant advantages in preserving nutritional value, guaranteeing product safety, maintaining organoleptic attributes, and extending the shelf life of frozen muscle foods and aquatic foods (meat and fish goods) by using functionalized packaging material (Sridhar et al., 2021; Gupta et al., 2026a). However, nanoemulsions, a recent development in nanotechnology, and polysaccharide-matrix-based films and coatings ensure the durability and monodispersity of nanoemulsion droplets by forming a continuous phase (Table 4). Food-grade nanoemulsions are useful for encasing active ingredients such as plant extracts, essential oils, antimicrobial agents, and nutraceuticals, which additionally contribute to developing biodegradable films and coatings by reducing respiration rates, minimizing lipid peroxidation, reducing color browning, and slowing down microbial growth, ultimately increasing the shelf life of packaged frozen goods. Moreover, the development of nanosensors in active and intelligent packaging has been influential in preserving and enhancing the quality and safety of frozen muscle products (Jacinto-Valderrama et al., 2023).

Currently, various research studies suggest that polysaccharide-based nanoparticles (cellulose nanoparticles, starch nanoparticles, chitosan nanoparticles), organic particles, inorganic nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles, and silver nanoparticle-based composite films have a good preservation effect in the frozen storage of aquatic products. A previous study reported that incorporating 1% titanium dioxide particles and 2% rosemary oil droplets into a cellulose nanofiber–whey protein-based biodegradable film significantly enhanced its mechanical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. The developed active packaging system effectively extended the shelf life of frozen packaged lamb meat from 6 to 15 days at 4 °C by substantially reducing microbial growth, lipid oxidation, and lipolysis (Alizadeh-Sani et al., 2018). Another study showed that pullulan/curcumin-mediated silver nanoparticle-based active packaging provided longer preservation (up to 20 days) of broiler meat, maintaining expected textural and physiochemical characteristics with no oxidative rancidity after freezing (Khan et al., 2022). Moreover, an edible film based on chitosan nanoparticles incorporated with a cinnamon–perilla essential oil nanoemulsion extended the shelf life of red sea bream fillets to 6–8 days under frozen storage conditions, while maintaining acceptable sensory qualities and effectively inhibiting microbial growth (Table 5) (Mittal et al., 2024). However, despite the growing usage of nanoparticles in frozen food packaging, consumer acceptance and perceptions are impacted by worries about toxicity. Many commercially available types of nano-food packaging are composed of or coated with inorganic materials; two examples are nano-silver and nano-clay. Numerous investigations have demonstrated the potential for nanomaterial transfer from containers or packaging to food (Chadha et al., 2022). Safety evaluations are currently ongoing, and sufficient toxicological data is not yet available. Numerous studies conducted in the past few years have documented the migration of nanoparticles into food items. Since the public and government are concerned about the safety and health impacts of nano-silver, the majority of these studies have concentrated on it. According to certain findings, nano-silver may damage human cells by altering mitochondrial function, increasing membrane permeability, and producing reactive oxygen species (Zhang J. et al., 2022). Recent research indicates that nanoparticles can migrate from packaging into food. The regulation was only established for general substances, and the table does not include all the types of nanomaterials that are available on the market, even though the estimated amount of nanomaterial migration is less than the migration limit in legislation (European Commission, 2011). A conference titled “Nanotechnologies in the Food and Agriculture Sectors: Potential Food Safety Implications” was organized in 2009 by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (World Health Organization, 2010). Information on current and upcoming uses of nanotechnologies was presented at the meeting, including what is known about the implications for food safety, any potential dangers, and the ability to evaluate them at this time. A draft report titled “State of the art on the initiatives and activities relevant to risk assessment and risk management of nanotechnologies in the food and packaging sectors” was published by FAO and WHO in 2012. The 2008 national strategy was then replaced in October 2011 by the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), which released a national strategy to support regulatory decision-making and ensure the responsible development of nanotechnology (World Health Organization, 2013). Safety, health, and environmental issues were the primary focus of the report. However, the article contends that further investigation is necessary to determine the physiochemical characteristics of nanomaterials, as well as techniques for measuring and tracking them in practical exposure settings (Chadha et al., 2022; Rouhi et al., 2022). Therefore, the public may continue to have concerns about their potential health effects until their safety has been thoroughly confirmed. A number of media outlets and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have raised this problem through their communication channels. Researchers are still debating the extent of migration and whether it is safe and insignificant. Since nano-food packaging may have significant effects on human health, government agencies and stakeholders must move quickly to establish use constraints and publish definitive laws and regulations (Singh and Kumar, 2023). The USFDA (Food and Drug Administration) is still working on a definitive regulatory approach to nanotechnology in FCSs, despite the fact that the USA is a leader in the development of nanomaterial safety resources for food and food packaging. Furthermore, nano-enabled food packaging is not yet covered by the most recent European Union regulation on nanomaterial safety, which was released in 2014. The worldwide planning policy framework should address this issue, as laws and regulations should be created and implemented to safeguard public health from the proliferation of nanoparticles in frozen food-related applications (Singh and Kumar, 2023; Rouhi et al., 2022).

4.4 Advanced insulation technologies for frozen food packaging

Freezing is one of the most widely employed methods for the long-term preservation and storage of food products. In contemporary food processing, contact plate freezing is commonly utilized for products packed in rectangular containers, including ice cream, fish fillets, cakes, pizzas, and fats, whereas loose products such as fruits, vegetables, and seafood are generally frozen using fluidization or cryogenic techniques. Furthermore, frozen foods should be transported home promptly to avoid thawing or partial defrosting (Jensen et al., 2025). The frozen food can be handled by the consumer in a separate metallized foil-based plastic bag lined with a thin layer of bubble wrap or polyethylene/polypropylene foam to minimize heat transfer. This is a viable approach to frozen food packaging that produces cutting-edge thermal insulation for storage and transportation. Thermal insulation usually prevents heat transfer due to air cells that offer thermal resistance rather than the insulation core material used, as shown in Figure 2 (Zhang et al., 2025). In this case, the food product is packed in a disposable container which must be inexpensive, easy to use, and biodegradable. Furthermore, the wrap must also insulate frozen foods during transportation and transfer heat throughout the freezing process. The wrap resembles bubble wrap (working principle shown in Figure 3), which is frequently used to shield delicate electronic devices or paper envelopes from mechanical harm because it is strong, flexible, and lightweight. As per previous research, a perforated film with parallel and rectangular folds was used to create the suggested insulation wrap, which allows internal air to be forced from pressed parts to unpressed ones. The described package totally flattens when subjected to intense local external pressure. When the pressure applied to the foil is removed, the structure returns to its original shape, thereby providing thermal insulation to the frozen food (Kasperski and Grabowska, 2016). Aluminum foil plays a crucial role in thermal insulation because of its high reflectivity and low surface emissivity. Studies show that including additional insulating materials successfully prevents radiative heat transmission, improving the overall thermal efficiency of the packaging box (Wang et al., 2020). Also, polyvinyl alcohol-based thermal insulation packaging film combined with silica aerogel showed significantly reduced conductivity, and its application in chocolate packaging confirmed that the film had strong thermal insulation qualities because of the increased concentration of silica gel (Kurd et al., 2024). Although wholesale expanded polystyrene (EPS) boxes are more insulating than wholesale corrugated plastic (CP) boxes, many boxes stacked on a pallet require less thermal insulation than freestanding boxes. The available types of insulation include cellular isotropic materials such as foam rubber, cork, polystyrene, polyurethane, polyethylene, and polyisocyanurate, as well as anisotropic metallized reflective membranes, which require air-filled, gas-filled, or evacuated conditions to function effectively (Kasperski and Grabowska, 2016). Currently, new concepts such as gas insulation, vacuum insulation, dynamic, and nano-insulation materials are addressed for frozen foods, which may have either open or closed pore structures. However, vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) are among the current high-performance thermal insulation techniques that have been effectively applied to frozen and thermal packaging, as shown in Figure 4. The design of polyurethane foam boxes integrated with vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) shields some impacts from a loss of vacuum that results in a reduction of thermal resistance. Additionally, VIPs demonstrated super-thermal insulation performance using a getter/desiccant, gas barrier foil, and core material—all of which are already extensively utilized in the refrigeration and cold storage industries (Kan et al., 2023). Recent studies focused on the development of high-insulating gas-filled materials at low to moderate costs. GEP, a development of super-insulated window technology, insulates by enclosing sealed panels with a low heat conductivity gas or gas mixture at atmospheric pressure. Currently, GEP is being utilized to create high barrier multilayer polymers containing greater films for the food packaging sector, which have been effectively employed for prototypes. Moreover, gas column films containing air enclosed within sealed films are commonly used as cushioning packaging materials since air has a lower thermal conductivity than other materials. Additionally, packaging films that are utilized as gas barrier resins, including polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), are durable, resistant to punctures, long-lasting, and heat sealable (Bamps et al., 2022). According to reports, research on barrier materials such as silicon oxide coatings and aluminum is currently ongoing. Although current foam insulation technology uses a mixture of liquid polymers and a blowing agent under pressure, the pressure release or appropriate temperature rising eventually creates macromolecular foam (Forest et al., 2015). Nanotechnology has been used to create new insulating materials, for example, nanofoams, which exhibit enhanced mechanical strength and thermal barrier properties while maintaining reduced thickness. These materials are comparable to cellulose nanocomposite foams containing surface-modified montmorillonite (SM-MMT) and produced using a high-shear homogenizer for application as highly insulated food packaging materials. Recently, aerogel-like materials have attracted increasing research interest because of their unique properties, which make them promising for applications related to frozen food storage. For traditional frozen food storage, polyurethane foam, EPS (expanded polystyrene), and XPS (extruded polystyrene) continue to be the most popular materials due to their affordability and dependable insulation. VIPs and aerogels offer the best thermal performance, although they are expensive. Nanocellulose composites, cellulose fiber, cork, mycelium, and starch-based bio-foams are sustainable substitutes. Phase change material (PCM)-integrated packaging systems and nanocellulose-based insulating materials are two new technologies that have great potential for future frozen food packaging because they combine increased functionality, sustainability, and thermal protection (Table 6) (Forest et al., 2015; Niculescu et al., 2024). While conventional materials such as EPS, XPS, and polyurethane foam remain the most widely used due to their low cost and commercial availability, advanced materials such as VIPs and aerogels provide superior thermal insulation but are limited by higher costs and manufacturing challenges. Bio-based materials, including nanocellulose and starch-based foams, offer improved sustainability but generally provide lower insulation efficiency than VIPs and aerogels. Therefore, the choice of insulation technology depends on balancing thermal performance, economic feasibility, scalability, and environmental impact.

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

4.5 High-pressure processing (HPP) for frozen food packaging

HPP has emerged as a promising preservation technology for packaged frozen foods owing to its ability to extend shelf life while minimizing quality deterioration and preserving nutritional attributes. However, its effectiveness is strongly dependent on the selection of packaging materials, as high-pressure conditions can alter their mechanical, physiochemical, and aesthetic properties (Nilsen-Nygaard et al., 2021). Until now, laminated flexible packaging materials made of various polymer combinations have been used to package the majority of high-pressure processed frozen foods in industries. Among these, flexible packaging materials used under high-pressure conditions are adequately strong to withstand the rapid compression and decompression effects and flexible enough to compensate for headspace collapse and potential food volume reduction. Furthermore, the choice of flexible packaging material must ensure that the barrier qualities and integrity of the heat seal will remain unimpacted (Marangoni Junior et al., 2020). Additionally, the activity of endogenous enzymes in frozen fatty and lean fish species may continue to cause deterioration during frozen storage, including protein denaturation, hydrolysis, and lipid oxidation, especially during prolonged storage periods and when appropriate storage temperatures are not maintained. Nevertheless, this widely adopted technique is extensively used for the production of shelf-stable, sterilized low-acid foods. Generally, food items are often packaged in flexible packaging material and kept in a pressure vessel with a pressure transmitting fluid before being treated with high pressure (Marangoni Junior et al., 2020; Bumbudsanpharoke and Jinkarn, 2022). Prior to the high pressure-high temperature (HP-HT) processing step, flexible food packages are preheated to the desired starting temperature for HP-HT sterilization, which could further harm the packaging materials. Therefore, the safety and shelf life of frozen food products largely depend on the integrity of heat-treated packaging materials both before and after HP processing (Bumbudsanpharoke and Jinkarn, 2022). According to research reports, the effects of HP-HT processing on frozen food packaging are limited. Studies have shown that the impact of HPP on packaging materials depends on both processing conditions and packaging composition. For instance, delamination between polypropylene (PP) and aluminum (Al) layers was reported in meal-ready-to-eat (MRE) pouches processed at 200 MPa and 90 °C for 10 min (Patel, 2020). In contrast, EVOH-based packaging subjected to retort sterilization (121 °C) and HPP treatment (800 MPa, 75.8 °C) exhibited only negligible, although detectable, changes in packaging properties. These findings suggest that while certain multilayer structures may be susceptible to pressure-induced damage, others demonstrate adequate resistance under severe processing conditions. From an industrial perspective, high-pressure sterilization requires product temperatures to reach approximately 121 °C through compressive heating, necessitating initial product temperatures of 87–95 °C depending on the thermal insulation of the pressure chamber, with temperature increases of approximately 3–5 °C per 100 MPa. Consequently, packaging materials must withstand the combined effects of high pressure and elevated temperatures to ensure product safety and package integrity (Albahr, 2023). Additionally, the preheating process needs to be completed as thoroughly as possible in order to attain the industrial advantages of HP sterilization by reaching the target initial temperature of the prefilled pouches. In a previous preheating investigation, vacuum packaging on egg patties revealed that an aluminum-based pouch outperformed a polymeric EVOH or an AIOx-based package in terms of food heat transmission. Therefore, a metallic-based package can reduce time and provide products with consistent temperature distribution prior to pressure treatment, while also reducing the amount of quality degradation caused by heating (Wang et al., 2021). Another study investigated the storage stability of black tiger shrimp, which were vacuum packed in three different packaging films (EVOH, LDPE, and metalized polyester with multilayer) under various conditions. It was found that storage temperatures of 15 and 25 °C allowed bacteria to grow and shorten the shelf life of stored fish, while 48 °C generated unfavorable conditions for bacterial growth, which further reduced the sample quality. Additionally, after processing, pressurized shrimp demonstrated a cooked appearance and a tougher texture, which can be served as an RTE product. Since the ice transitions from phase I to III caused adequate bacterial inactivation, HPPULT at temperatures slightly below −22 °C and pressures of 250 MPa for a few minutes is efficient for guaranteeing both microbiological safety and quality retention (Young et al., 2014; Kaur and Srinivasa Rao, 2018). Commercially, frozen fish is kept between −18 and −20 °C. Therefore, a treatment at temperatures slightly below −22 °C is viable for the processing sector, and combined low pressure for a brief period of time offers a potential application in contrast to traditional HPP (Young et al., 2014). Although HPP offers substantial benefits in preserving the quality of highly processed frozen meat products like sausages and nuggets, this technology still has issues with energy use. HPP operates at extremely high pressures, typically between 400 and 600 MPa, which demands a significant amount of electrical energy, particularly to run pressure systems and hydraulic pumps. Additionally, such a load requires the adoption of sturdy and long-lasting equipment, which inadvertently raises operating expenses and power usage. There are still issues with HPP’s energy efficiency, particularly in large-scale industrial settings (Nurjati et al., 2025). Additionally, a prior study discovered that applying HPP to products like chorizo necessitates careful consideration of temperature and storage duration variables in order to maintain product quality, which contributes to total energy consumption (Carrapiso et al., 2023). HPP outperforms traditional thermal technology in terms of energy efficiency. It exhibits more energy efficiency than traditional thermal and irradiation processing, especially taking into account the finished quality of the product and its environmental effect. It follows that excessive energy usage in HPP affects high operating expenses. In addition to energy limitations, scalability is another issue with using HPP in the highly processed frozen meat sector (Nurjati et al., 2025). These difficulties include both technical and financial factors that influence the industry’s adoption of HPP technology. Technically, the HPP method is still batch-based, which limits manufacturing capacity, particularly for high-volume goods. Filling must be done manually or semi-automatically, which reduces daily throughput and increases cycle time because of the small batch size. According to a study, when HPP is used for meat products on a big scale, the cycle speed and vessel volume are the primary issues that impede production efficiency. The adoption of this system is also being hampered by the high maintenance and startup expenditures associated with HPP equipment, as well as return on investment (ROI) calculation (Roobab et al., 2022). Overall, HPP is an acceptable approach for frozen preservation packaging that combines high pressure with moderate to high temperatures in order to achieve microbial inactivation while maintaining food quality. Compared with conventional freezing and MAP, HPP provides superior microbial inactivation and better retention of nutritional and sensory quality. However, MAP remains more cost-effective and readily scalable due to lower capital investment and compatibility with existing packaging infrastructure. In contrast, the widespread adoption of HPP is limited by high equipment costs, batch-based processing, and lower throughput. Despite these challenges, consumer acceptance of HPP-treated products is generally favorable because it is perceived as a minimally processed, non-thermal preservation technology. Therefore, while MAP is more suitable for large-scale commercial applications, HPP offers greater value for premium frozen foods where quality preservation is prioritized over processing costs.

4.6 Gas-flushing techniques for frozen food packaging

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is widely employed to enhance the storage stability of meat products by suppressing microbial growth through the introduction of a predetermined gaseous environment into a gas-impermeable package. The most commonly used gases in gas-flushing systems are carbon dioxide (CO₂), oxygen (O₂), and nitrogen (N₂), each serving distinct functions in preservation. Among these, CO₂ is considered the primary antimicrobial component because it dissolves into the meat matrix and inhibits microbial growth by extending the bacterial lag phase and reducing proliferation rates (Mortazavi et al., 2023). Several factors, including the respiration rate of meat products, the permeability of packaging films, the headspace gas-to-product ratio, and the solubility of CO₂ within the product, should be considered when designing an effective MAP system and optimizing the antibacterial effect of CO₂-based active packaging (Boz et al., 2018). In a recent work, trays were flushed with a mix of N₂, O₂, and CO₂ gases to create an efficient modified atmospheric environment for frozen goods where N₂ is utilized as an inert gas to avoid collapse of the package, while O₂ prevents anaerobic bacterial growth and color degradation of frozen meat, whereas it can simultaneously encourage lipid oxidation and the growth of aerobic bacteria (Kandeepan and Tahseen, 2022). In certain cases, the requirements associated with gas flushing, including the use of food-grade gases, specialized mixing equipment, and precise measurement tools to maintain appropriate gas composition, make this technique costly and difficult to implement. Furthermore, a gas-to-product (G: P) ratio of 2:1 to 3:1 is required to prevent package deformation and collapse, as the gases in the headspace are gradually absorbed by the product during storage due to the high solubility of CO₂ in the product (Mortazavi et al., 2023). Moreover, selecting the ideal CO₂/O₂/N₂ gas ratio for the product is crucial for the successful gas flushing application of MAP technology, particularly for seafood. A prior study found that cod fillets kept in 25% CO₂ and 75% N₂ had twice the shelf life of items kept in the air at 0 °C. According to the criterion of 7 log CFU/g in total bacterial count, MAP of 50% CO₂ and 50% O₂ was successful in prolonging the shelf life of rohu fillet from 11 days with vacuum packaging to 16 days at 4 °C (Olafsdottir et al., 2006). A study on Atlantic cod fillets reported that the growth of Pseudomonas species, lactic acid bacteria, and aerobic bacteria could all be inhibited by 60% CO₂ and 5% O₂ concentration at 4 °C (Hansen et al., 2021). Controlling the type of gas flushed MAP packaging and the type of air utilized during packaging is essential to maximize the durability of frozen foods and keep them fresh for a long period. However, there are specific industrial constraints associated with gas flushing (Modified Atmosphere Packaging) for frozen goods, mainly related to line efficiency and gas concentration. The “temperature–volume paradox” is a significant drawback; when warm or room-temperature gas is injected into a cold environment, it contracts quickly, causing a vacuum effect that can distort or collapse flexible packaging (Park et al., 2023). Low residual oxygen levels are practically challenging to obtain at high production speeds because quick filling frequently causes turbulence that traps ambient air inside the pouch. Furthermore, the hermetic seal may be compromised by ice crystals and moisture on the sealing jaws, resulting in gas leaks during storage. Moreover, the implementation of this process necessitates expensive real-time gas analysis equipment and specialized technical expertise, since minor fluctuations in the gas mixture may lead to increased freezer burn and deterioration of food structure and quality (Park et al., 2023; Ilhan et al., 2021). Therefore, from an industrial perspective, gas flushing/MAP is highly scalable and compatible with existing packaging lines; however, maintaining precise gas compositions requires specialized equipment, continuous monitoring, and additional operational costs. Despite these challenges, consumer acceptance of gas flushing/MAP remains high owing to its widespread commercial use and ability to preserve product quality without the addition of chemical preservatives. Therefore, the successful implementation of MAP depends on balancing preservation efficacy, package stability, processing costs, and product-specific requirements.

5 Traceability and supply-chain transparency in frozen food packaging

In recent times, traceability has become pivotal in managing and ensuring food safety throughout the food supply chain. It achieves this by recording all relevant components, procedures, movements, and required controls to comprehensively outline the history of a food product (Table 7). Integrating traceability with routine food testing helps authorities pinpoint the origins of threats to food products and human health (Nair and Detwal, 2024). Traceability, as defined by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), is “the ability to follow the movement of a food through specified stages of production, processing and distribution.” A robust food traceability system is built on four essential pillars: product identification, traceability data, product routing, and traceability tools (Rao and Shukla, 2022). One widely mentioned classification of food traceability is “Forward” and “Backward” traceability, based on the direction of tracing, such as top–down tracking of product temperature throughout the food supply chain or bottom–up tracing from the product origin (Islam and Cullen, 2021). Therefore, traceability integrated with an Intelligent Cold Chain system enhances the safety and quality of food by continuously monitoring food conditions throughout the supply chain in real time. These systems integrate sensors with Internet of Things (IoT) technology to track humidity, temperature, microbial contamination, and the refrigeration equipment status of frozen food. Data collected by sensors is wirelessly transmitted to a processing module, analyzed, and sent to both server and client platforms. The server enables early warnings and regulatory actions, while the client has real-time access to food logistics, status, and history. For a reliable cold chain, both sensors and seamless data transmission are essential (Bai et al., 2023).

Advanced traceability tools in frozen food packaging increasingly rely on smart technologies such as portable sensors and smart packaging indicators. These enable real-time tracking of critical parameters throughout the supply chain. Temperature indicators such as MonitorMark^™, Fresh-Check^®, and OnVu^™ help detect thermal exposure, while freshness indicators such as curcumin-incorporated pH-sensitive dyes, beetroot extract, grape peel, and anthocyanins, as well as commercial options like Ripesense^® and To-Genkyo, monitor spoilage through color and pH changes. Gas indicators, such as Ageless Eye^® and methylene blue-based sensors, detect oxygen and CO₂ levels. Immuno-Biosensors, including the Food Sentinel System and Toxin Guard^™, use antibody-based detection where pathogen toxins bind to antibodies on a thin food packaging film, triggering a visible color change. Additionally, quantum dots in fluorescence-based pathogen sensing effectively detect nitrite in meats (e.g., sausage, beef) and pathogens in drinks (e.g., milk, apple juice). Portable detection tools include infrared, Raman, and NMR spectrometers, electronic noses and tongues, and microfluidic lab-on-a-chip systems, including paper fluidics. Smartphones are also used for real-time analysis via colorimetric and fluorescence-based detection apps. Wireless tools, such as passive RFID tags and wearable glove sensors with Bluetooth, facilitate continuous monitoring. These technologies are integrated using IoT and cloud computing platforms, thereby facilitating real-time data analysis, remote monitoring, and enhanced food safety management throughout the supply chain (Yu et al., 2022).

6 Consumer preferences and trends in frozen food packaging

Recent innovations in food packaging include active and intelligent systems, along with biodegradable polymers, edible films, and coatings. Active packaging prolongs the shelf life of frozen foods, whereas intelligent packaging enables visual, real-time monitoring of external conditions by providing information on food quality and early warning signals, thereby reducing food loss through the detection of issues during transportation (Firouz et al., 2021). Despite their benefits, both systems face challenges such as high costs, limited recyclability, and performance issues in liquids or under conditions of thermal stress. Therefore, future trends point toward integrated bioactive, biodegradable, and bio-nanocomposite solutions for sustainable and consumer-friendly packaging (Yan et al., 2022). Sustainability challenges related to resource consumption also exist, including limited recyclability and end-of-life management. The use of multilayer structures, active agents, and intelligent components can complicate recycling and reduce material circularity. Moreover, life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies suggest that the environmental impact of food losses may exceed that of the packaging itself, highlighting the need to balance packaging sustainability with food waste prevention. Future developments should therefore focus on recyclable and bio-based materials that support circular economy principles and contribute to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 12 (“Responsible Consumption and Production”) and SDG 13 (“Climate Action”) (Pauer et al., 2019).

The key aspects that influence consumer preferences when selecting frozen food products include innovative packaging solutions with enhanced barrier properties, visually appealing designs, and sustainable, biodegradable, compostable, or recyclable materials that address these needs. Other factors include the retention of taste, maintenance of hygiene, efficient vacuum packaging, consumer convenience, price, brand reputation, and the nutritional information provided on the packaging (Sutakwa et al., 2023). Smart packaging features like resealable closures with easy-to-open mechanisms and microwave-safe designs enhance convenience, while portion-controlled packs and single-serve mechanisms help reduce food waste. Clear labeling and transparent windows promote informed choices, whereas innovative designs boost brand visibility and consumer appeal (Research Forecast, 2025).

Additionally, in recent years, the packaged frozen food market has seen noteworthy growth, largely driven by evolving consumer lifestyles, preferences, and rising e-commerce platforms requiring tamper-proof packaging. According to recent industry statistics, consumer preferences for convenience, sustainability, and product safety are significantly influencing the frozen food packaging market. The global frozen food packaging industry is expected to grow from an estimated USD 45.7 billion in 2023 to USD 67.5 billion by 2030 due to rising consumption of frozen ready meals, fruits, vegetables, and seafood (Sen et al., 2021). Flexible packaging formats like pouches and bags hold approximately 60% of the market share because consumers favor lightweight, reusable, and cost-effective packaging. According to a global survey of over 11,000 consumers, recyclability is regarded as the most important packaging sustainability attribute, and packaging made of paper and fiber is preferred over traditional plastics (Boz et al., 2020). Furthermore, a considerable percentage of consumers report avoiding products with excessive or non-sustainable packaging, and about 50% of consumers are willing to pay more for sustainable packaging. Such market trends are prompting frozen food manufacturers to transition toward recyclable mono-material films, bio-based packaging materials, and smart packaging technologies that enhance consumer convenience and support environmental sustainability (Sen et al., 2021). Technological advancements have significantly increased competitive pressures within the food industry, particularly in the frozen non-vegetarian food sector. As market competition becomes increasingly dynamic, understanding consumer perceptions and preferences is essential for producers to design and implement effective marketing strategies. Product evaluation by consumers is influenced by several attributes associated with perceived quality and value, such as taste, price, packaging, texture, and brand reputation. Within intensely competitive markets, such attributes play a key role in helping consumers distinguish between comparable products, thereby serving as essential considerations for companies aiming to achieve strong brand positioning (Jerome and Aruldass, 2023). Consequently, marketing strategies for frozen food products should therefore focus not only on maintaining product quality but also on aligning product attributes with consumer expectations and preferences. By maintaining effective communication, ensuring consistent product availability, and implementing attractive promotional initiatives, producers can foster stronger customer loyalty and enhance their competitive position in the market. The success of a frozen food brand is largely determined by its ability to meet consumer expectations and provide tangible value that equals or surpasses competing market offerings (Mumu, 2024). Moreover, affordability and accessibility remain essential, especially in markets where economic considerations shape food choices. Therefore, packaging is vital in maintaining high-quality, hygienic, and visually appealing products, which significantly enhance product appeal and influence buying behavior. Past customer experiences and brand reputation further guide consumer trust and loyalty, shaping long-term purchasing patterns (Funde and Shrivastava, 2023). Therefore, in a nutshell, the frozen food industry must balance health, quality, convenience, sustainability, and eco-friendliness by designing compostable and recyclable laminates, films, and other plant-based biodegradable packaging materials with improved barrier properties, which help maintain product freshness and quality to meet the diverse and evolving demands of today’s consumers.

7 Conclusion and future aspects

The initial objective of frozen food packaging, which was to passively retain and shield the food product from biological contamination, gas, moisture, and light, has been replaced with more sophisticated features. For instance, the product-package interaction has resulted in: (i) a significant extension of the contained shelf life of the food product through the use of antioxidant and antimicrobial packaging materials in conjunction with modified atmospheric and vacuum packaging; (ii) offering information on product quality through time–temperature, freshness, and leakage indicators, which are based on either microbial growth or biochemical changes occurring within the packaged product. However, aside from VP, MAP, and retort pouch technologies, certain cutting-edge innovations like nanotechnology and various insulation techniques are still in the research stage and indicate a need for additional packaging development to maintain the safety and quality of frozen food products with a longer shelf life. Such developments must meet two requirements: (i) all packaging materials used in particular frozen applications must adhere to the applicable laws currently in effect or new laws that will be enacted; and (ii) sensory and consumer acceptability must not be affected. Future advancements in frozen food packaging are expected to focus on combining intelligent packaging technologies with eco-friendly bio-based materials to strengthen food quality preservation, safety monitoring, and environmental performance. Emerging research directions involve the design of biodegradable and compostable packaging films derived from renewable biomaterials such as starch, cellulose, chitosan, and protein-based polymers, with enhanced suitability for frozen and low-temperature storage environments. Additional studies should focus on the incorporation of smart indicators and sensing technologies that can continuously monitor temperature fluctuations, packaging condition, freshness, and microbial growth across the frozen food supply chain. Furthermore, the integration of nanomaterials and active substances into bio-based matrices has the potential to enhance barrier performance to extend product shelf life. Advancements in recyclable multilayer packaging structures, life-cycle assessment methodologies, and circular economy strategies will further facilitate the transition toward environmentally sustainable frozen food packaging systems. The convergence of sustainability, functional performance, and real-time monitoring technologies is expected to play a key role in advancing next-generation smart packaging systems for frozen foods.

References

• 1

  Abedi-FiroozjahR.SalimS. A.HasanvandS.AssadpourE.Azizi-LalabadiM.PrietoM. A.et al. (2023). Application of smart packaging for seafood: a comprehensive review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.22, 1438–1461. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.13117,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 2

  AhmedI.LinH.ZouL.BrodyA. L.LiZ.QaziI. M.et al. (2017). A comprehensive review on the application of active packaging technologies to muscle foods. Food Control82, 163–178. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.06.009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 3

  AlamdariN. E.AksoyB.AksoyM.BeckB. H.JiangZ. (2021). A novel paper-based and pH-sensitive intelligent detector in meat and seafood packaging. Talanta224:121913. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121913,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 4

  AlbahrZ. (2023). Evaluating Thermal and Storage Stability of Selected Food Products Processed Using Microwave and High Pressure Assisted Thermal Processes. Pullman, WA, USA: Washington State University.

  • Google Scholar

• 5

  Alizadeh-SaniM.KhezerlouA.EhsaniA. (2018). Fabrication and characterization of the bionanocomposite film based on whey protein biopolymer loaded with TiO2 nanoparticles, cellulose nanofibers and rosemary essential oil. Ind. Crop. Prod.124, 300–315. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.08.001

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 6

  AlvesJ.GasparP. D.LimaT. M.SilvaP. D. (2023). What is the role of active packaging in the future of food sustainability? A systematic review. J. Sci. Food Agric.103, 1004–1020. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.11880,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 7

  AmmaraA.SemenehS.Suk NamK. (2022). Effect of modified atmosphere packaging varying in CO2 and N2 composition on quality characteristics of dry fermented sausage during refrigeration storage. Korean J. Food Sci. Anim. Resour.42, 639–654. doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2022.e27,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 8

  AndradeM. S.IshikawaO. H.CostaR. S.SeixasM. V.RodriguesR. C.MouraE. A. (2022). Development of sustainable food packaging material based on biodegradable polymer reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals. Food Packag. Shelf Life31:100807. doi: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2021.100807

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 9

  AndreR. S.MercanteL. A.FacureM. H.SanfeliceR. C.Fugikawa-SantosL.SwagerT. M.et al. (2022). Recent progress in amine gas sensors for food quality monitoring: novel architectures for sensing materials and systems. ACS Sens.7, 2104–2131. doi: 10.1021/acssensors.2c00639,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 10

  Aschemann-WitzelJ.JensenJ. H.JensenM. H.KulikovskajaV. (2017). Consumer behaviour towards price-reduced suboptimal foods in the supermarket and the relation to food waste in households. Appetite116, 246–258. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.013,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 11

  AshokA.RejeeshC.RenjithR. (2016). Biodegradable Polymers for Sustainable Packaging Applications: A Review. International Journal of Bionics and Biomaterials. 2, 1–11.

  • Google Scholar

• 12

  BaiL.LiuM.SunY. (2023). Overview of food preservation and traceability technology in the smart cold chain system. Foods12:2881. doi: 10.3390/foods12152881,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 13

  BakL. S.AndersenA. B.AndersenE. M.BertelsenG. (1999). Effect of modified atmosphere packaging on oxidative changes in frozen stored cold-water shrimp (Pandalus borealis). Food Chem.64, 169–175. doi: 10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00152-6

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 14

  BampsB.GuimaraesR. M. M.DuijstersG.HermansD.VanminselJ.VervoortE.et al. (2022). Characterizing mechanical, heat seal, and gas barrier performance of biodegradable films to determine food packaging applications. Polymers14:2569. doi: 10.3390/polym14132569,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 15

  BanerjeeR.MaheswarappaN. B. (2019). Superchilling of muscle foods: potential alternative for chilling and freezing. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.59, 1256–1263. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1401975,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 16

  BhagwatB. V. (2020). Gas permeation studies in polyarylates and dispersed polymeric systems. CSIR - National Chemical Laboratory (NCL).

  • Google Scholar

• 17

  BhargavaN.SharanagatV. S.MorR. S.KumarK. (2020). Active and intelligent biodegradable packaging films using food and food waste-derived bioactive compounds: a review. Trends Food Sci. Technol.105, 385–401. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.015

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 18

  BiJ.TianC.ZhangG.-L.HaoH.HouH.-M. (2021). Novel procyanidins-loaded chitosan-graft-polyvinyl alcohol film with sustained antibacterial activity for food packaging. Food Chem.365:130534. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130534,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 19

  BoakyeD. O.KwaraP. A. (2026). Design and characterization of biodegradable nano composite packaging films with active and intelligent functions for food quality monitoring and waste reduction. Int. J. Multidiscip. Res. Growth Eval.7, 181–192. doi: 10.54660/.IJMRGE.2026.7.1.181-192

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 20

  BoscaS.BarresiA. A.FissoreD. (2013). Use of a soft sensor for the fast estimation of dried cake resistance during a freeze-drying cycle. International journal of pharmaceutics, 451, 23–33. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.04.046

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 21

  BozZ.BrechtJ. K.WeltB. A.PelletierW.McLamoreE.KikerG.et al. (2018). Challenges and advances in development of active components to modify headspace gases in packaging of fresh produce and muscle foods. J. Appl. Packag. Res.10, 62–97.

  • Google Scholar

• 22

  BozZ.KorhonenV.Koelsch SandC. (2020). Consumer considerations for the implementation of sustainable packaging: a review. Sustainability12:2192. doi: 10.3390/su12062192

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 23

  BumbudsanpharokeN.JinkarnT. (2022). Effect of high-pressure food processing on selected flexible packaging: structure, physicochemical properties, and migration. J. Food Eng.321:110970. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.110970

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 24

  CarrapisoA. I.Trejo-ÁlvarezA.Martín-MateosM. J.Delgado-AdámezJ.García-ParraJ.RamírezR. (2023). New insights into the application of high-pressure processing and storage time and temperature to sliced Iberian chorizo. Foods12:472. doi: 10.3390/foods12030472,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 25

  ChadhaU.BhardwajP.SelvarajS. K.ArasuK.PraveenaS.PavanA.et al. (2022). Current trends and future perspectives of nanomaterials in food packaging application. J. Nanomater.2022:2745416. doi: 10.1155/2022/2745416

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 26

  ChenC.DingR.YangS.WangJ.ChenW.ZongL.et al. (2020). Development of thermal insulation packaging film based on poly (vinyl alcohol) incorporated with silica aerogel for food packaging application. LWT129:109568. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109568

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 27

  ChenY. W.CaiW. Q.ShiY. G.DongX. P.BaiF.ShenS. K.et al. (2020). Effects of different salt concentrations and vacuum packaging on the shelf-stability of Russian sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedti) stored at 4 C. Food Control109:106865. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106865

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 28

  ChengH.XuH.McClementsD. J.ChenL.JiaoA.TianY.et al. (2022). Recent advances in intelligent food packaging materials: principles, preparation and applications. Food Chem.375:131738. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131738,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 29

  ChoiH.RananavareA. P.LeeY. S. (2026). Performance of bio-based foam packaging for frozen fried chicken storage. Foods15:242. doi: 10.3390/foods15020242,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 30

  ChongW. J.ShenS.LiY.TrinchiA.PejakD.KyratzisI. L.et al. (2022). Additive manufacturing of antibacterial PLA-ZnO nanocomposites: benefits, limitations and open challenges. J. Mater. Sci. Technol.111, 120–151. doi: 10.1016/j.jmst.2021.09.039

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 31

  De AgostiniF. (2021). The Relation between Food Shelf-life and Environmental Impact of Different Plastic Packaging Alternatives. Lund, Sweden: Lund University.

  • Google Scholar

• 32

  DelpianiG.DelpianiS. M.AntoniM. D.AleM. C.FischerL.et al. (2020). Are we sure we eat what we buy? Fish mislabelling in Buenos Aires province, the largest sea food market in Argentina. Fish. Res.221:105373. doi: 10.1016/j.fishres.2019.105373

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 33

  Di PintoA.MottolaA.MarchettiP.BottaroM.TerioV.BozzoG.et al. (2016). Packaged frozen fishery products: species identification, mislabeling occurrence and legislative implications. Food Chem.194, 279–283. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.135,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 34

  DingJ. F.WengJ. H.ChouC. C. (2023). Assessment of key risk factors in the cold chain logistics operations of container carriers using best worst method. Int. J. Refrig.153, 116–126. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2023.06.013

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 35

  DragoE.CampardelliR.PettinatoM.PeregoP. (2020). Innovations in smart packaging concepts for food: An extensive review. Foods9:1628. doi: 10.3390/foods9111628,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 36

  DuX.WangB.LiH.LiuH.ShiS.FengJ.et al. (2022). Research progress on quality deterioration mechanism and control technology of frozen muscle foods. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.21, 4812–4846. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.13040,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 37

  European Commission (2011). COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 1282/2011 of 28 November 2011, amending and correcting Commission Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. Official Journal of the European Union, 328, 22-29. Available online at: https://www.accustandard.com/media/assets/AMEN_EU_10_2011_REG_1282_plastics_food.pdf

  • Google Scholar

• 38

  FadeyibiA.AjiboyeR. A.OlakunleA. M. (2025). Enhancing thawing process of tomatoes with ultrasound and nanocomposite preservative film for quality retention. Nutrire50:9. doi: 10.1186/s41110-025-00313-x

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 39

  FadilogluE. E. (2026). Effect of freeze-dried black chokeberry extract on the quality characteristics of cooked chicken patties incorporated with MAP. J. Food Process. Preserv.2026:7309946. doi: 10.1155/jfpp/7309946

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 40

  FaganJ. D.GormleyT. R.MhuircheartaighM. U. (2004). Effect of modified atmosphere packaging with freeze-chilling on some quality parameters of raw whiting, mackerel and salmon portions. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol.5, 205–214. doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2004.01.001

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 41

  FangY.WakisakaM. (2021). A review on the modified atmosphere preservation of fruits and vegetables with cutting-edge technologies. Agriculture11:992. doi: 10.3390/agriculture11100992

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 42

  FangZ.ZhaoY.WarnerR. D.JohnsonS. K. (2017). Active and intelligent packaging in meat industry. Trends Food Sci. Technol.61, 60–71. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.01.002

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 43

  FatimaS.KhanM. R.AhmadI.SadiqM. B. (2024). Recent advances in modified starch based biodegradable food packaging: a review. Heliyon10:e27453. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27453,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 44

  FengH.WangW.ChenB.ZhangX. (2020). Evaluation on frozen shellfish quality by blockchain based multi-sensors monitoring and SVM algorithm during cold storage. IEEE Access8, 54361–54370. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2977723

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 45

  FiorinoG. M.GarinoC.ArlorioM.LogriecoA. F.LositoI.MonaciL. (2018). Overview on untargeted methods to combat food frauds: a focus on fishery products. J. Food Qual.2018:581746. doi: 10.1155/2018/1581746

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 46

  FirouzM. S.Mohi-AldenK.OmidM. (2021). A critical review on intelligent and active packaging in the food industry: research and development. Food Res. Int.141:110113. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110113,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 47

  ForestC.ChaumontP.CassagnauP.SwobodaB.SonntagP. (2015). Polymer nano-foams for insulating applications prepared from CO2 foaming. Prog. Polym. Sci.41, 122–145. doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2014.07.001

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 48

  FundeY.ShrivastavaA. (2023). Exploring factors driving the choice of frozen food in the Indian market. SCMS J. Indian Manag.20, 57–69.

  • Google Scholar

• 49

  GaikwadK. K.SinghS.LeeY. S. (2016). Functional corrugated board with organic and inorganic materials in food packaging applications: a review. Korean J. Packag. Sci. Technol.22, 49–58. doi: 10.20909/kopast.2016.22.3.49

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 50

  GuptaR. K.Abd El GawadF.AliE. A.KarunanithiS.YugianiP.SrivastavP. P. (2024). Nanotechnology: current applications and future scope in food packaging systems. Measurement13:100131. doi: 10.1016/j.meafoo.2023.100131

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 51

  GangulyS.MargelS. (2025). Magnetic nanoparticle-based Nano-packaging and Nano-freezing in food storage applications. Molecules30:3453. doi: 10.3390/molecules30173453,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 52

  GhoshalG. (2018). “Recent trends in active, smart, and intelligent packaging for food products,” in Food Packaging and Preservation, A. M. Grumezescu & A. M. Holban (Eds.) (Cambridge, MA, USA: Academic Press), 343–374.

  • Google Scholar

• 53

  GiannakourouM. C.DermesonlouoglouE. (2024). “Quality kinetics and shelf life prediction and management in the frozen foods chain,” in Low-Temperature Processing of Food Products, S. M. Jafari & H. Rostamabadi (Eds.) (Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing), 289–327.

  • Google Scholar

• 54

  GuptaR. K.GuhaP.SrivastavP. P. (2022). Natural polymers in bio-degradable/edible film: a review on environmental concerns, cold plasma technology and nanotechnology application on food packaging-a recent trends. Food Chem. Adv.1:100135. doi: 10.1016/j.focha.2022.100135

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 55

  GuptaR. K.GuhaP.SrivastavP. P. (2026b). Comparative study on the optimization and characterization of underutilize taro starch based composite film using response surface methodology and artificial neural network coupled with genetic algorithm. Food Bioprocess Technol.19:70. doi: 10.1007/s11947-025-04149-1

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 56

  GiannouV.TziaC. (2007). Frozen dough bread: quality and textural behavior during prolonged storage–prediction of final product characteristics. J. Food Eng.79, 929–934. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.03.013

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 57

  GuillotA. J.Martínez-NavarreteM.GarriguesT. M.MeleroA. (2023). Skin drug delivery using lipid vesicles: a starting guideline for their development. J. Control. Release355, 624–654. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.02.006,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 58

  GuptaR. K.PrasannaN. S.PatelJ.PipliyaS.MurugesanS.KumarS.et al. (2026a). Nanotechnology-enabled sustainable food packaging systems: a comprehensive review on materials, mechanisms, and applications in food quality and safety. Food Human.6:101149. doi: 10.1016/j.foohum.2026.101149

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 59

  HanJ. W.Ruiz-GarciaL.QianJ. P.YangX. T. (2018). Food packaging: a comprehensive review and future trends. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.17, 860–877. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12343,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 60

  HansenA. Å.LangsrudS.BergetI.GaarderM. Ø.MoenB. (2021). High oxygen packaging of Atlantic cod fillets inhibits known spoilage organisms, but sensory quality is not improved due to the growth of Carnobacterium/Carnobacteriaceae. Foods10:1754. doi: 10.3390/foods10081754,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 61

  HassounA.ShumilinaE.Di DonatoF.FoschiM.Simal-GandaraJ.BiancolilloA. (2020). Emerging techniques for differentiation of fresh and frozen–thawed seafoods: highlighting the potential of spectroscopic techniques. Molecules25:4472. doi: 10.3390/molecules25194472,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 62

  HuangJ.ZhouY.ZouZ.HeS.ZhuX.JiangC.et al. (2026). Nanozymes in meat systems: integrated nanozyme-enabled platforms for microbial safety, spoilage sensing, and smart packaging. Food Rev. Intl.1-25, 1–25. doi: 10.1080/87559129.2026.2679728,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 63

  HughesJ. M.ClarkeF. M.PurslowP. P.WarnerR. D. (2020). Meat color is determined not only by chromatic heme pigments but also by the physical structure and achromatic light scattering properties of the muscle. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.19, 44–63. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12509

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 64

  IlhanI.TuranD.GibsonI.ten KloosterR. (2021). Understanding the factors affecting the seal integrity in heat sealed flexible food packages: a review. Packag. Technol. Sci.34, 321–337. doi: 10.1002/pts.2564

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 65

  IlicI. K.LamannaL.CortecchiaD.CataldiP.LuzioA.CaironiM. (2022). Self-powered edible defrosting sensor. ACS Sens.7, 2995–3005. doi: 10.1021/acssensors.2c01280,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 66

  IslamS.CullenJ. M. (2021). Food traceability: a generic theoretical framework. Food Control123:107848. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107848

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 67

  Jacinto-ValderramaR. A.AndradeC. T.PateiroM.LorenzoJ. M.Conte-JuniorC. A. (2023). Recent trends in active packaging using nanotechnology to inhibit oxidation and microbiological growth in muscle foods. Foods12:3662. doi: 10.3390/foods12193662,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 68

  JensenH. A.SkyttheK. B.GüdeS. H.SparvathJ. S.MacéS.BøknæsN.et al. (2025). Frozen and thawed cooked shell-on shrimp (Pandalus borealis)–effect of microbial and chemical changes on sensory and safe shelf-life. Front. Food Sci. Technol.5:1572265. doi: 10.3389/frfst.2025.1572265

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 69

  JeromeV. B.AruldassS. (2023). “A study on consumer attitude towards packed non-vegetarian food products,” in Digital India A Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), V. Bastin Jerome (Ed.) (Mumbai, Maharashtra, India: = Kitab Writing Publication), 180.

  • Google Scholar

• 70

  JurićM.BandićL. M.CarulloD.JurićS. (2024). Technological advancements in edible coatings: emerging trends and applications in sustainable food preservation. Food Biosci.58:103835. doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2024.103835

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 71

  KanA.ChenZ.WangM.ZhangJ.MaR.LouK. (2023). Research status and development trend of thermal insulation envelope materials for marine reefer containers. ES Energy Environ.22:1033. doi: 10.30919/esee1033

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 72

  KandeepanG.TahseenA. (2022). Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) of meat and meat products: a review. J. Packaging Technol. Res.6, 137–148. doi: 10.1007/s41783-022-00139-2

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 73

  KasperskiJ.GrabowskaB. (2016). Optimizing the thermal effectiveness of an insulation wrap with internal folded polypropylene film for the transportation of frozen food. Int. J. Refrig.67, 42–53. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2016.03.021

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 74

  KaurB. P.Srinivasa RaoP. (2018). Effect of storage temperature and packaging on quality and shelf-life of high pressure processed black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon). J. Food Process. Preserv.42:e13366. doi: 10.1111/jfpp.13366

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 75

  KazemiM. M.Hashemi-MoghaddamH.Mohammadi NafchiA.AjodnifarH. (2020). Application of modified packaging and nano ZnO for extending the shelf life of fresh pistachio. J. Food Process Eng.43:e13548. doi: 10.1111/jfpe.13548

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 76

  KhanM. J.RamiahS. K.SelamatJ.ShameliK.SaziliA. Q.MookiahS. (2022). Utilisation of pullulan active packaging incorporated with curcumin and pullulan mediated silver nanoparticles to maintain the quality and shelf life of broiler meat. Ital. J. Anim. Sci.21, 244–262. doi: 10.1080/1828051x.2021.2012285

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 77

  KimbuathongN.LeelaphiwatP.HarnkarnsujaritN. (2020). Inhibition of melanosis and microbial growth in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) using high CO2 modified atmosphere packaging. Food Chem.312:126114. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.126114,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 78

  KliaugaiteD.VaržinskasV.BaikauskienėA.MiliūnasV.StasiškienėŽ. (2018). Greenhouse gas emission reduction in frozen food packaging. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal,17, 2977–2990. doi: 10.30638/eemj.2018.298

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 79

  Köprüalan AydınÖ.Yüksel SarıoğluH.DirimS. N.Kaymak-ErtekinF. (2023). Recent advances for rapid freezing and thawing methods of foods. Food Engineering Reviews, 15, 667–690. doi: 10.1007/s12393-023-09356-0

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 80

  KurdF.FathiM.ShahediM.SoltanizadehN. (2024). Aerogel composite based on cellulose nanofibril and poly vinyl alcohol as insulation for meat packaging. J. Food Eng.367:111854. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2023.111854

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 81

  LaorenzaY.ChonhenchobV.BumbudsanpharokeN.JittanitW.Sae-TanS.RachtanapunC.et al. (2022). Polymeric packaging applications for seafood products: packaging-deterioration relevance, technology and trends. Polymers14:3706. doi: 10.3390/polym14183706,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 82

  LeeS.JoK.JeongH. G.ChoiY. S.KyoungH.JungS. (2022). Freezing-induced denaturation of myofibrillar proteins in frozen meat. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.64, 1385–1402. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2116557,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 83

  LiX.QianS.SongY.GuoY.HuangF.HanD.et al. (2022). New insights into the mechanism of freeze-induced damage based on ice crystal morphology and exudate proteomics. Food Res. Int.161:111757. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111757

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 84

  LinB.ZhangX.ZhongY.ChenY.ChenX.ChenX. (2025). Preparation of vanillin nanoparticle/polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan film and its application in preservation of large yellow croaker. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.287:138440. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.138440,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 85

  LorangE.LobiancoA.DelacoteP. (2023). Increasing paper and cardboard recycling: impacts on the forest sector and carbon emissions. Environ. Model. Assess.28, 189–200. doi: 10.1007/s10666-022-09850-5

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 86

  LuzardoS.SaadounA.CabreraM. C.TerevintoA.BrugniniG.RodriguezJ.et al. (2024). Effect of beef long-storage under different temperatures and vacuum-packaging conditions on meat quality, oxidation processes and microbial growth. J. Sci. Food Agric.104, 1143–1153. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.12999,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 87

  MaL.LongT.YuanS.QiP.HanL.HaoJ. (2023). A pH-indicating smart tag based on porous hydrogel as food freshness sensors. J. Colloid Interface Sci.647, 32–42. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.05.145,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 88

  MajumderR. K.BalangeA. K. (2023). Advances in Fish Processing Technologies: Preservation, Waste Utilization, and Safety Assurance. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

  • Google Scholar

• 89

  MangarajS.GoswamiT. K.MahajanP. V. (2009). Applications of plastic films for modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables: a review. Food Eng. Rev.1, 133–158. doi: 10.1007/s12393-009-9007-3

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 90

  Marangoni JuniorL.AlvesR. M. V.MoreiraC. Q.CristianiniM.PadulaM.et al. (2020). High-pressure processing effects on the barrier properties of flexible packaging materials. J. Food Process. Preserv.44:e14865. doi: 10.1111/jfpp.14865

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 91

  Meléndez-PérezR.Rodríguez-HernándezY.Arjona-RománJ. L.Méndez-AlboresA.Coria-HernándezJ. (2022). Frost formation in frozen meat packaged with two plastic films (LDPE and PVC). PRO10:2415. doi: 10.3390/pr10112415

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 92

  MendesR.TeixeiraB.GonçalvesS.LourençoH.MartinsF.CamachoC.et al. (2017). The quality of deep-frozen octopus in the Portuguese retail market: results from a case study of abusive water addition practices. LWT77, 397–405. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.11.062

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 93

  MercierS.VilleneuveS.MondorM.UysalI. (2017). Time–temperature management along the food cold chain: a review of recent developments. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.16, 647–667. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12269,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 94

  MiaoM.AhmadM.WangB.BianH.WangS. (2026). Design of pH-sensitive sodium alginate/polyvinyl alcohol films with myricetin nanocrystals for intelligent food packaging. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.357:151586. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151586,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 95

  MittalA.D’souzaC. S.FikryM.DetcharoenM.BenjakulS.LuckoseF.et al. (2026). Combined effects of gas composition in modified atmosphere packaging and chitooligosaccharide-EGCG on quality changes in refrigerated Asian hard clam meat. Foods15:1026. doi: 10.3390/foods15061026,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 96

  MittalA.SinghA.XavierM.RavishankarC. N.BenjakulS. (2024). “Chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives from seafood waste and processing byproducts,” in Fish Waste to Valuable Products, S. Maqsood, M. N. Naseer, S. Benjakul, & A. A. Zaidi (Eds.) (Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore), 253–278.

  • Google Scholar

• 97

  MohammadianE.Alizadeh-SaniM.JafariS. M. (2020). Smart monitoring of gas/temperature changes within food packaging based on natural colorants. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.19, 2885–2931. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12635,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 98

  MohanA.KrishnanR.ArshinderK.VandoreJ.RamanathanU. (2023). Management of postharvest losses and wastages in the Indian tomato supply chain—a temperature-controlled storage perspective. Sustainability15:1331. doi: 10.3390/su15021331

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 99

  MortazaviS. M. H.KaurM.FarahnakyA.TorleyP. J.OsbornA. M. (2023). The pathogenic and spoilage bacteria associated with red meat and application of different approaches of high CO2 packaging to extend product shelf-life. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.63, 1733–1754. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1968336,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 100

  MukkadanM. J.PreethaR.SreejitV. (2024). Development of active packaging film reinforced with nano cellulose extracted from Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) residues for prolonging the shelf life of chicken meat. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.59, 2033–2041. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.16706

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 101

  MumuT. R. (2024). A study on consumer perception of quality and safety standards in Kazi Farms Kitchen’s frozen food products Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/10361/24931 (Accessed April 20, 2026)

  • Google Scholar

• 102

  NairR. G.DetwalP. K. (2024). “Ensuring transparency,” in Blockchain Technology: Transforming Businesses and Shaping the Future, J. Daniel, A. Samadhiya, & J. A. Garza-Reyes (Eds.) (Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press), 178.

  • Google Scholar

• 103

  National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People's Republic of China (2015) GB 31603–2015: National Standard for Food Safety —General Hygienic Specifications for Production of Food Contact Materials and Products. Available online at: https://www.codeofchina.com/standard/GB31603-2015 (Accessed June 13, 2026).

  • Google Scholar

• 104

  National Health Commission State Administration for Market Regulation (2021). GB 19295–2021: National Food Safety Standard—Quick-frozen Wheat Flour/Rice and Prepared Food. Available online at: https://www.codeofchina.com/standard/GB19295-202 (Accessed June 13, 2026).

  • Google Scholar

• 105

  NaymaK.DasK. C.AliceE. J.MehbubM. F.IslamM. T. (2020). Extension of shelf-life of ready-to-cook (RTC) pangas fish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) curry by modified atmosphere packaging at chilled storageIOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science4141012015

  • Google Scholar

• 106

  NicolettiC.PfoserS.BrandnerM.Blank-LandeshammerB.DornmayrM.WeghuberJ. (2025). Sustainable insulation materials for E-grocery shipments: a multi-criteria evaluation. Future Foods12:100690. doi: 10.1016/j.fufo.2025.100690

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 107

  NiculescuA. G.TudoracheD. I.BocioagăM.MihaiescuD. E.HadibarataT.GrumezescuA. M. (2024). An updated overview of silica aerogel-based nanomaterials. Nano14:469. doi: 10.3390/nano14050469,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 108

  Nilsen-NygaardJ.FernándezE. N.RadusinT.RotabakkB. T.SarfrazJ.et al. (2021). Current status of biobased and biodegradable food packaging materials: impact on food quality and effect of innovative processing technologies. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.20, 1333–1380. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12715,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 109

  NovotniD.ĆurićD.GalićK.ŠkevinD.NeđeralS.KraljićK.et al. (2011). Influence of frozen storage and packaging on oxidative stability and texture of bread produced by different processes. LWT-Food Sci. Technol.44, 643–649. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2010.11.020

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 110

  NurjatiS. K.PurnawanM. A.StevvianiR. (2025). High-pressure processing (HPP) energy efficiency and scalability challenges in ultra-processed meat: a review. J. Clean Technol.2, 45–56. doi: 10.15294/joct.v2i1.27944

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 111

  OlafsdottirG.LauzonH. L.MartinsdóttirE.OehlenschláugerJ.KristbergssonK. (2006). Evaluation of shelf life of superchilled cod (Gadus morhua) fillets and the influence of temperature fluctuations during storage on microbial and chemical quality indicators. J. Food Sci.71, S97–S109. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.tb08928.x,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 112

  OngH. T.SamsudinH.Soto-ValdezH. (2022). Migration of endocrine-disrupting chemicals into food from plastic packaging materials: an overview of chemical risk assessment, techniques to monitor migration, and international regulations. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.62, 957–979. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1830747,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 113

  OrdoñezR.AtarésL.ChiraltA. (2022). Biodegradable active materials containing phenolic acids for food packaging applications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.21, 3910–3930. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.13011,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 114

  OsmanS. A.XuC.AkufulM.PaulE. R. (2023). Perishable food supply chain management: challenges and the way forward. Open J. Soc. Sci.11, 349–364. doi: 10.4236/jss.2023.117025

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 115

  ParkE. J.JungS. Y.KimS. C.LeeD. S.AnD. S. (2023). Modified atmosphere packaging of flounder fillet: modelling of package conditions and comparison of different flushing atmospheres for quality preservation. Int. Food Res. J.30, 1519–1527. doi: 10.47836/ifrj.30.6.14

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 116

  PatelJ. (2020). Shelf-life Studies of Ready-to-eat Meals in High Barrier Packaging Processed via Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilisation (MATS) System. Pullman, WA, USA: Washington State University.

  • Google Scholar

• 117

  PipliyaS.KumarS.GuptaR. K.DasR. S.MeenaD.SrivastavP. P.et al. (2025). The future of algal proteins: innovations in extraction and modifications, functional properties, and sustainable food applications. Future Foods11:100549. doi: 10.1016/j.fufo.2025.100549

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 118

  PauerE.WohnerB.HeinrichV.TackerM. (2019). Assessing the environmental sustainability of food packaging: an extended life cycle assessment including packaging-related food losses and waste and circularity assessment. Sustainability11:925. doi: 10.3390/su11030925

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 119

  PengC.QinJ.LiY.ChenK.JiangF.XiaoM. (2024). Enhanced water and oxygen barrier properties of deacetylated konjac glucomannan/high acyl gellan gum water gradient film for improved frozen fish fillet preservation. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.279:135203. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135203,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 120

  PetersK. (2019). Technology of Fruits and Vegetable Processing London, UK: EdTech Press.

  • Google Scholar

• 121

  PhillipsK. M.Council-Troche MMcGintyR. C.RasorA. S.Tarrago-TraniM. T. (2016). Stability of vitamin C in fruit and vegetable homogenates stored at different temperatures. J. Food Compos. Anal.45, 147–162. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2015.09.008

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 122

  PiaoZ.QiaoJ.LiuX.YingY.PanP.LiuZ.et al. (2026). A multifunctional nano-intelligent film based on self-assembled amphiphilic H-HPC/d-MWCNTs coatings grafted via H-HPC for goat milk shelf-life extension and freshness monitoring. Prog. Org. Coat.211:109811. doi: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2025.109811

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 123

  PietrosantoA.ScarfatoP.Di MaioL.NobileM. R.IncarnatoL. (2020). Evaluation of the suitability of poly (lactide)/poly (butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate) blown films for chilled and frozen food packaging applications. Polymers12:804. doi: 10.3390/polym12040804,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 124

  PizzolongoF.AponteM.TorrieriE.BlaiottaG.RomanoR. (2026). Prolonging the shelf life of “Sfogliatella Riccia” using modified atmosphere packaging. Int. J. Food Prop.29:2603717. doi: 10.1080/10942912.2025.2603717

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 125

  PriyadarshiR.KimH. J.RhimJ. W. (2021). Effect of sulfur nanoparticles on properties of alginate-based films for active food packaging applications. Food Hydrocoll.110:106155. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106155

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 126

  RaoE. S.ShuklaS. (2022). Food traceability system in India. Measurement Food5:100019. doi: 10.1016/j.meafoo.2021.100019

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 127

  RealiniC. E.MarcosB. (2014). Active and intelligent packaging systems for a modern society. Meat Sci.98, 404–419. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.06.031,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 128

  ReddyN.LynchB.GujralJ.KarnikK. (2023). Regulatory landscape of alternatives to animal testing in food safety evaluations with a focus on the western world. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol.143:105470. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105470,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 129

  Research Forecast (2025). Frozen Food Packaging Market Size, Growth and Key Trends Available online at: https://researchforecast.com/frozen-food-packaging-market-size-growth-and-key-trends/ (Accessed May 13, 2025).

  • Google Scholar

• 130

  RestucciaD.SalomoneR.SpizzirriU. G.SaijaG.IoppoloG.ParisiO. I.et al (2016). Industrial applications: Regulatory issues and life cycle assessment of food packaging. In Antimicrobial food packaging (pp. 215–227). Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800723-5.00016-4

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 131

  RodeznoL. A. E.BonillaF.ReyesV.XuZ.BechtelP. J.SathivelS. (2023). Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on nutritional stability and quality retention of oyster meat (Crassostrea virginica) during frozen storage. J. Pack. Technol. Res.7, 11–22. doi: 10.1007/s41783-022-00145-4

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 132

  Rojas-LemaS.NilssonK.TrifolJ.LangtonM.Gomez-CaturlaJ.BalartR.et al. (2021). Faba bean protein films reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals as edible food packaging material. Food Hydrocoll.121:107019. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107019

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 133

  RoobabU.FidalgoL. G.ArshadR. N.KhanA. W.ZengX. A.BhatZ. F.et al. (2022). High-pressure processing of fish and shellfish products: safety, quality, and research prospects. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.21, 3297–3325. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12977,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 134

  RouhiM.NateghiL.AghamirzaeiM.YousefiS.GaravandF.FeyziS.et al. (2022). “Safety, standards and regulations of nanotechnology in food,” in Encapsulation in Food Processing and Fermentation, S. Lević, V. Nedović, & B. Bugarski (Eds.) (Pullman, WA, USA: CRC Press), 335–358.

  • Google Scholar

• 135

  SarkarS.AparnaK. (2020). Food packaging and storage. Res. Trends Home Sci. Exten.3, 27–51.

  • Google Scholar

• 136

  SenS.AntaraN.SenS. (2021). Factors influencing consumers’ to take ready-made frozen food. Curr. Psychol.40, 2634–2643. doi: 10.1007/s12144-019-00201-4

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 137

  SeongP. N.SeoH. W.KimJ. H.KangG. H.ChoS. H.ChaeH. S.et al. (2017). Assessment of frozen storage duration effect on quality characteristics of various horse muscles. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci.30, 1756–1763. doi: 10.5713/ajas.17.0039,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 138

  ShengL.WangL. (2021). The microbial safety of fish and fish products: recent advances in understanding its significance, contamination sources, and control strategies. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.20, 738–786. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12671,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 139

  SinghR.KumarS. (2023). “Regulatory and safety concerns regarding the use of active nanomaterials in food industry,” in Nanotechnology Advancement in agro-Food Industry, Singh, R., & Kumar, S. (Eds.) (Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore), 269–306.

  • Google Scholar

• 140

  SridharA.PonnuchamyM.KumarP. S.KapoorA. (2021). Food preservation techniques and nanotechnology for increased shelf life of fruits, vegetables, beverages and spices: a review. Environ. Chem. Lett.19, 1715–1735. doi: 10.1007/s10311-020-01126-2,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 141

  SutakwaA.SyarifahA. N.RohmansyahR. (2023). A study on consumer preferences towards frozen processed meat productsAIP Conference ProceedingsMelville, NY, USA: AIP Publishing

  • Google Scholar

• 142

  TaoR.SedmanJ.IsmailA. (2021). Antimicrobial activity of various essential oils and their application in active packaging of frozen vegetable products. Food Chem.360:129956. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129956,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 143

  TapiaM. S.AlzamoraS. M.ChirifeJ. (2020). “Effects of water activity (aw) on microbial stability as a hurdle in food preservation,” in Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications, G. V. Barbosa-Cánovas, A. J. Fontana Jr., S. J. Schmidt, & T. P. Labuza (Eds.) (Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons), 323–355.

  • Google Scholar

• 144

  TavaresJ.MartinsA.FidalgoL. G.LimaV.AmaralR. A.PintoC. A.et al. (2021). Fresh fish degradation and advances in preservation using physical emerging technologies. Foods10:780. doi: 10.3390/foods10040780,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 145

  TyagiP.SalemK. S.HubbeM. A.PalL. (2021). Advances in barrier coatings and film technologies for achieving sustainable packaging of food products–a review. Trends Food Sci. Technol.115, 461–485. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.06.036

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 146

  U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2017). Food types & conditions of use for food contact substances Available online at: https://www.fda.gov/food/packaging-food-contact-substances-fcs/food-types-conditions-use-food-contact-substances (Accessed June 13, 2026).

  • Google Scholar

• 147

  van EwijkS.StegemannJ. A.EkinsP. (2021). Limited climate benefits of global recycling of pulp and paper. Nat Sustain4, 180–187. doi: 10.1038/s41893-020-00624-z,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 148

  VanderroostM.RagaertP.DevlieghereF.De MeulenaerB. (2014). Intelligent food packaging: the next generation. Trends Food Sci. Technol.39, 47–62. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2014.06.009

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 149

  VenkatachalamD.SellamuthuP. S.JarugalaJ.RotimiS. E. (2026). Chitosan-coated nanoemulsions loaded with lemongrass essential oil: formulation and process optimization for postharvest quality retention and shelf-life extension of papaya. Sustain. Food Technol. doi: 10.1039/D5FB00791G

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 150

  WangK.YangL.KucharekM. (2020). Investigation of the effect of thermal insulation materials on packaging performance. Packag. Technol. Sci.33, 227–236. doi: 10.1002/pts.2500

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 151

  WangS.LiuZ.ZhaoM.GaoC.WangJ.LiC.et al. (2023). Chitosan-wampee seed essential oil composite film combined with cold plasma for refrigerated storage with modified atmosphere packaging: a promising technology for quality preservation of golden pompano fillets. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.224, 1266–1275. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.10.212,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 152

  WangY.XiongC.LuoW.LiJ.TuY.ZhaoY. (2021). Effects of packaging methods on the quality of heavy metals–free preserved duck eggs during storage. Poult. Sci.100:101051. doi: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101051,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 153

  WaniN. R.DarA. H.DashK. K.PandeyV. K.SrivastavaS.JanS. Y.et al. (2023a). Recent advances in the production of bionanomaterials for development of sustainable food packaging: a comprehensive review. Environ. Res.237:116948. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116948

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 154

  WaniN. R.RatherR. A.FarooqA.PadderS. A.BabaT. R.SharmaS.et al. (2023b). New insights in food security and environmental sustainability through waste food management. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.31, 17835–17857. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-26462-y,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 155

  WochJ.MałachowskaE.KorasiakK.LipkiewiczA.DubowikM.ChrobakJ.et al. (2022). Barrier dispersion-based coatings containing natural and paraffin waxes. Molecules27:930. doi: 10.3390/molecules27030930,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 156

  World Health Organization. (2010). FAO/WHO expert meeting on the application of nanotechnologies in the food and agriculture sectors: potential food safety implications: meeting report. World Health Organization. Available onlineat: https://www.fao.org/4/i1434e/i1434e00.pdf

  • Google Scholar

• 157

  World Health Organization. (2013). State of the art on the initiatives and activities relevant to risk assessment and risk management of nanotechnologies in the food and agriculture sectors: FAO. World Health Organization. Available onlineat: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564649

  • Google Scholar

• 158

  WuL. T.TsaiI. L.HoY. C.HangY. H.LinC.TsaiM. L.et al. (2021). Active and intelligent gellan gum-based packaging films for controlling anthocyanins release and monitoring food freshness. Carbohydr. Polym.254:117410. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117410,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 159

  XiaofengX.XuelaiZ. (2021). Simulation and experimental investigation of a multi-temperature insulation box with phase change materials for cold storage. J. Food Eng.292:110286. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.110286

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 160

  XingX.LuW.ZhangG.WuY.DuY.XiongZ.et al. (2022). Ternary composite phase change materials (PCMs) towards low phase separation and supercooling: eutectic behaviors and application. Energy Rep.8, 2646–2655. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2021.12.069

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 161

  YanM. R.HsiehS.RicachoN. (2022). Innovative food packaging, food quality and safety, and consumer perspectives. PRO10:747. doi: 10.3390/pr10040747

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 162

  YanY.ZhangY.FangZ.WangZ. C.NanY.ShiH.et al. (2024). Modified atmosphere packaging and plant extracts synergistically enhance the preservation of meat: a review. Food Control164:110622. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110622

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 163

  YoungE.MirosaM.BremerP. (2023). A conceptual model for food industry views on the commercialisation of active and intelligent packaging. Packag. Technol. Sci.36, 905–925. doi: 10.1002/pts.2766,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 164

  YoungH.AnangD. M.TiwariB. K. (2014). Shelf life and textural properties of cooked-chilled black tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) stored in vacuum pack or modified atmospheric packaging at 4 or 20° C. Food Packag. Shelf Life2, 59–64. doi: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2014.07.001

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 165

  YuZ.JungD.ParkS.HuY.HuangK.RascoB. A.et al. (2022). Smart traceability for food safety. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.62, 905–916. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1830262,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 166

  ZhangJ.WangF.YalamartyS. S. K.FilipczakN.JinY.LiX. (2022). Nano silver-induced toxicity and associated mechanisms. Int. J. Nanomedicine17, 1851–1864. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S355131,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 167

  ZhangX.PanC.ChenS.XueY.WangY.WuY. (2022). Effects of modified atmosphere packaging with different gas ratios on the quality changes of golden pompano (Trachinotus ovatus) fillets during superchilling storage. Foods11:1943. doi: 10.3390/foods11131943,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 168

  ZhangY.KimY. H. B.PuolanneE.ErtbjergP. (2022). Role of freezing-induced myofibrillar protein denaturation in the generation of thaw loss: a review. Meat Sci.190:108841. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2022.108841,

  • Pubmed Abstract
  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 169

  ZhangZ.HaoF.HuD.LiuW.ChenX. (2025). Natural plant fiber-based materials for packaging applications–a review of recent innovations and developments. Adv. Mater. Technol.10:2401020. doi: 10.1002/admt.202401020

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar

• 170

  ZhongR.XuX.WangL. (2017). Food supply chain management: systems, implementations, and future research. Industrial management \u0026amp; data systems, 117, 2085–2114. doi: 10.1108/IMDS-09-2016-0391

  • CrossRef
  • Google Scholar