Abstract
Fresh fish is a highly perishable commodity due to its high water content, relatively neutral initial pH, abundance of free amino acids and non-protein nitrogen compounds, as well as PUFA content that is prone to oxidation. As a result, quality deterioration continues to occur even when conventionally packaged. This critical review aims to synthesize up-to-date, holistic, and comprehensive research evidence regarding the development and integration mechanisms of smart packaging in fresh fish products, given that previous literature tends to be fragmented or focused on specific packaging materials. The methodology involved a critical review of publications related to the mechanisms of fish deterioration, active packaging systems, intelligent packaging systems, and patterns of integration between the two, as summarized in schematic mechanisms and study compilations. The analysis shows that fish spoilage is driven by the synergy between autolysis, lipid oxidation, and microbial decomposition, which produce volatile amines that increase pH and TVB-N. Active packaging is effective at suppressing microbes, slowing oxidation, reducing TVB-N accumulation, and maintaining sensory quality, especially at low temperatures. Intelligent packaging plays a role in monitoring product conditions. The integration of both systems as smart packaging provides a synergistic effect, namely delaying spoilage and providing real-time information for distribution decisions. These findings highlight that the integration of smart packaging is no longer merely a packaging innovation for the future, but a strategic solution ready to be adopted by the fisheries industry to improve product safety, efficiency, competitiveness, and supply chain sustainability in the global fish market.
1 Introduction
Fresh fish is one of the food commodities classified as highly perishable food due to its high water content, rich nutritional composition, and abundance of unsaturated lipids. This, in turn, creates conditions that indirectly support the deterioration of quality (Arbajayanti et al., 2025; Vázquez et al., 2021). Even though it is well-packaged, quality deterioration will continue to occur due to microbiological spoilage, autolysis, and lipid oxidation. The occurrence of uncontrolled quality deterioration will lead to losses in the form of decreased sensory quality, nutritional value, and the overall value of the fish product. Currently, conventional packaging systems usually only function as a passive barrier and protector, which is not effective enough to control complex spoilage mechanisms, especially under unstable storage and distribution conditions (Kumar et al., 2022). Therefore, it is important to develop more advanced packaging technologies. One such effort involves smart packaging, which consists of active and intelligent components capable of providing direct protection through antimicrobial and antioxidant functions, as well as enabling real-time monitoring of changes in the freshness and quality of products. This system encompasses various technological approaches, including polymer functionalization, the addition of metal nanoparticles such as silver and zinc oxide, or bioactive compounds like phenolics and essential oils into polymer films to enhance their barrier, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties (Figueroa-Enríquez et al., 2024; Rodríguez-f et al., 2025). In addition, the development of such packaging materials involves various fabrication techniques, ranging from conventional methods like solvent casting to more advanced nanotechnology-based processes such as electrospinning, which allows for the formation of nanofibers or nanoparticles with controlled morphology and improved functional performance for food preservation applications (Rodríguez-Felix et al., 2022; Canizales-Rodríguez et al., 2024; Estrella-osuna et al., 2022).
Studies on the development of active and intelligent packaging technology have been conducted for food products such as fish, including pH-sensitive colorimetric indicators, gas sensors, time–temperature indicators (TTI), and digital monitoring systems such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)-based labels. In addition, the integration of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds is also included as active packaging. Several review studies that have been conducted show the integration of smart packaging (active-intelligent), such as the use of collagen as smart packaging for beef and fish (Meenu et al., 2025), Artificial Intelligence (AI) development in smart packaging (Jiao et al., 2025), development of protein and polysaccharide-based smart packaging for food (Echegaray et al., 2024; Roy et al., 2024), betalain-based smart packaging for shrimp, fish, chicken, and milk (Abedi-firoozjah et al., 2023), smart packaging on fruits, vegetables (Beshai et al., 2020), fish, and meat (Nasution et al., 2023; Dirpan et al., 2018). However, until now there have not been any studies that have conducted an actual, holistic, and comprehensive synthesis of data on the integration of smart packaging specifically for fish products in a complete manner. Generally, research has only focused on food in general, the development of packaging systems, and those based on specific materials.
Based on the complexity and fragmentation of published research findings on smart packaging for fish, this review aims to present an up-to-date data analysis on smart packaging research for fish. In addition, this study provides holistic data on this highly visible topic as a foundation for further research development. Specifically, this study also presents a comprehensive mechanism for the integration of smart packaging for fish to ensure sustainability. These results are expected to contribute not only to strengthening the theoretical foundation in the fields of post-harvest science and food technology, but also to the development of sustainable and responsive smart packaging technology in industrial practices and global food policy.
2 Methodology
This mini review study was prepared using a narrative review approach, combined with a framework for critically evaluating the development and integration of intelligent packaging systems for fish products. Therefore, while a structured literature search and screening process was performed, the review was not designed as a systematic review and did not follow a formal PRISMA protocol. The use of databaes Scopus literature was intended to enhance methodological transparency and analytical rigor, accessed on January 23, 2026, at 15:41 + 8 UTC, using the following Boolean query: [TITLE-ABS-KEY (characterization) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (development) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (application) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“active packaging” OR “intelligent packaging” OR “smart packaging” OR “edible coating”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (fish)]. A total of 451 records were obtained, focusing on documents and those in English (n = 285). The literature period covered was 2020–2026 (n = 213), which were then screened based on title and abstract to match the selected topic (n = 127). Finally, accessible articles (n = 91) were comprehensively screened for topic relevance, resulting in a final number of publications included in the analysis (n = 33). This review will focus on studies discussing the characterization, application, and integration of active and intelligent packaging technologies as smart packaging, including edible coatings for fish products. The inclusion criteria are as follows: (1) articles published as research papers from 2020 to 2026; (2) publications in English; (3) documents that have been published in final and accessible form; (4) studies related to the application of smart packaging, including edible coatings, to various types of fish; and (5) studies discussing the integration of both active and intelligent packaging systems, including their contents and mechanisms. Studies not related to fish preservation, not within the 2020–2026 time frame, or that are duplicates, were excluded from the analysis.
The selected studies will be critically categorized based on packaging functionality, sensor mechanisms, active compounds, spoilage indicators, storage conditions, and preservation performance. Special attention is given to the relationship between intelligent indicators and spoilage parameters, including changes in pH, volatile amines, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), microbial growth, and lipid oxidation. At the same time, the effectiveness of active agents such as antimicrobials and antioxidants, as well as oxygen and moisture control systems, is also comparatively evaluated to determine their roles in extending fish shelf life. In addition, the literature is described not only descriptively but also critically, in order to enhance the analytical contribution of this mini-review, with the aim of identifying—through synthesis rather than mere description—the functionality of active and intelligent packaging integrated into intelligent packaging systems capable of providing real-time quality preservation and freshness monitoring. Furthermore, this review highlights material compatibility, storage conditions, and industrial scalability, and discusses the potential of biodegradable materials and multifunctional packaging systems to support more sustainable fish preservation technologies. Moreover, this review clearly distinguishes active packaging, intelligent packaging, and their integration within intelligent packaging systems, while also emphasizing the challenges related to sensor stability, material compatibility, scalability, and commercialization in real-world fish supply chains.
3 Deterioration mechanisms of fresh fish
Fresh fish are highly perishable due to their biochemical composition, characterized by a high water content (65%–80%), which promotes microbial growth and enzymatic activity. In addition, the substantial protein content (15%–25%) susceptible to oxidation and denaturation processes and serves as a nutrient source for microorganisms. The tissue in fish muscle also contains lipids (1%–20%) that are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA). These compounds, although nutritionally beneficial, are highly susceptible to oxidative degradation due to the presence of several double bonds in their molecular structure, which are easily attacked by reactive oxygen species, leading to rapid lipid peroxidation and resulting in the development of rancid odor and taste (Tenyang et al., 2019; Puranik, 2016; Qiu et al., 2026; Rathod et al., 2021b; Zaki et al., 2021). This causes rapid biochemical and microbiological deterioration in fish products (Arbajayanti et al., 2025; Vázquez et al., 2021; Gökoğlu and Yerlikaya, 2015).
The deterioration in quality of fresh fish is influenced by the complex interaction between biochemical and microbiological processes after death, including glycolysis, nucleotide degradation, autolytic enzyme activity, lipid hydrolysis and oxidation, as well as microbial spoilage. After the fish dies, anaerobic glycolysis occurs, leading to the accumulation of lactic acid and a decrease in pH, followed by the degradation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into inosine monophosphate (IMP), inosine, and hypoxanthine, all of which are closely associated with the loss of fish freshness (Jiménez-ruíz et al., 2025). At the same time, autolytic activity involving endogenous enzymes such as proteases will break down muscle proteins and structural components, resulting in tissue softening and the release of low-molecular-weight nitrogen compounds (Youssef et al., 2022). In parallel, lipid hydrolysis mediated by lipase releases free fatty acids from triglycerides and phospholipids. These liberated fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), are highly susceptible to subsequent oxidative degradation, leading to the formation of secondary oxidation products such as aldehydes and ketones that contribute to rancid odor and unpleasant flavor (Hu et al., 2025; Ye et al., 2024; Li et al., 2026; Enyidi and Ike, 2025). In addition, microbial spoilage accelerates the decline in quality through the metabolism of amino acids and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) into volatile basic compounds such as trimethylamine (TMA), ammonia, and dimethylamine (Youssef et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022). The accumulation of these compounds contributes to an increase in total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) values and a gradual rise in pH, both of which are widely used as indicators of fish freshness and quality deterioration.
4 Active packaging systems for fresh fish preservation
An active packaging system can extend shelf life by minimizing the potential for spoilage by interacting directly with the product and its surrounding environment. The application of active packaging has been widely reported for various food products, such as meat, poultry, horticultural commodities, and even aquatic products like fish. In fish products, active films containing essential oils, chitosan-based matrices, and nanocomposites have proven effective in extending shelf life by reducing microbial counts, and slowing the accumulation of total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), thereby maintaining sensory quality and shelf life (Rahmanifarah et al., 2025; Nawaz et al., 2020; Nasiri et al., 2025). In addition, edible active packaging has emerged as a promising new innovation. This packaging takes the form of a thin layer that can be consumed and is applied directly to the surface of the fish using biopolymers such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids combined with antimicrobial and antioxidant agents (Ozuna-valencia et al., 2024; Estrella-osuna et al., 2024). This coating serves as a semi-permeable barrier that can reduce moisture loss, limit oxygen diffusion, and allow for the controlled release of active compounds, thereby effectively inhibiting microbial growth and slowing lipid oxidation, while also preserving the quality and safety of the product (Vergel-alfonso et al., 2025; Figueroa-enriquez et al., 2025). Generally, active packaging systems (Figure 1A) are applied using various practical methods that involve direct contact with the active packaging systems are implemented through various approaches that involve direct contact with food products or their surrounding environment within the packaging. These approaches include conventional techniques such as spraying, coating, dipping, molding, and wrapping (Moura-alves et al., 2023; Barbosa et al., 2021), as well as integrating active agents into the polymer matrix through film forming methods like solvent casting (Hossain et al., 2018) and converting polymers into nanofibers using electrospinning fabrication techniques, which enable the development of nanofiber-based structures with enhanced functional properties (El-Naggar et al., 2021). In addition active components can also be delivered through supplementary systems such as labels, sachets (Gupta, 2023), and tablets (Robbani et al., 2021) and pads (Dirpan et al., 2022) which contains active compound substances.
Figure 1
Various active systems have been developed for fish preservation, such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, and headspace modification. Active packaging systems with antimicrobial properties generally utilize natural compounds such as essential oils, chitosan, plant extracts, or inorganic nanoparticles, which are incorporated into the polymer matrix or coating layer (Vieira et al., 2022; Brandelli, 2024). Antimicrobial compounds will damage the microbial cell membrane, disrupt metabolic pathways, or alter the local microenvironment, thereby selectively inhibiting specific spoilage microorganisms in fish. Another packaging system is based on antioxidants, utilizing polyphenols, herbal extracts, and other natural antioxidants. This system functions to capture free radicals and inhibit the activity of polyphenol oxidase enzymes, thereby slowing lipid oxidation which can cause rancid odors and discoloration in fish that are rich in unsaturated fatty acids (Rajapaksha and Shimizu, 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). Another technique is oxygen scavengers and moisture absorbers, which function to regulate the headspace in packaging by reducing oxygen availability, inhibiting diffusion, and controlling excess moisture, thereby creating conditions that are unfavorable for oxidative reactions and microbial growth (Kamaruddin et al., 2021; Mohan et al., 2019). Through the control of microbial activity, lipid oxidation, and headspace conditions, active packaging systems offer a promising and adaptive approach to improving the quality and safety of fresh fish during storage and distribution.
5 Intelligent packaging technology to monitor fish freshness
Intelligent packaging is designed to respond to changes that occur within the packaging in real-time, including temperature, pH, oxygen levels, carbon dioxide, and the formation of volatile compounds that can affect the freshness of food products (Hidayat et al., 2025). In the context of fresh fish storage, various integrated systems based on indicators and sensors have been developed to detect physicochemical and microbiological changes related to spoilage (Figure 1A). pH indicators typically rely on pH-sensitive dyes, either natural or synthetic (Liew et al., 2025; Hazer and Aytac, 2023). The compound will undergo a visible color change as a result of pH shifts caused by microbial metabolism (Chun et al., 2014; Hidayat et al., 2019). Next is a gas indicator capable of detecting volatile compounds associated with fish spoilage, specifically basic nitrogen compounds such as ammonia (NH₃), trimethylamine (TMA), and dimethylamine (DMA), as well as other gases like hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). These compounds are produced through microbial activity and biochemical changes during storage. In particular, TMA is mainly produced by the bacterial reduction of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), while ammonia and DMA arise from the degradation of protein and non-protein nitrogen. The accumulation of ammonia, TMA, and DMA collectively contributes to total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) as an indicator of fish spoilage. The principle of gas indicators as intelligent packaging is based on color changes resulting from chemical reactions that occur in specially designed and sensitive indicator materials when they interact with gas (Lee et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2023; Al Obaidi et al., 2024). In addition, another intelligent packaging system is the time temperature indicator (TTI) responsible for monitoring the thermal history of food products, including fish products. This technology will provide information about the condition of the product based on time and temperature, in an irreversible manner, from the beginning of the production process through storage and distribution until the product reaches the consumer, so the condition of the product can be monitored throughout storage and distribution (Adiani et al., 2021; Abekoon et al., 2024). Another, more advanced system is Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) namely, a technology that uses wireless devices to digitally track the temperature, storage duration, and logistics data of products during storage. The principle is that a signal is transmitted to the product tag, which then returns and is read by the RFID reader (Profetto et al., 2022; Mustafa et al., 2024; Mkhari et al., 2025).
6 Integration of system active–intelligent as smart packaging
The integration step is not merely the joint placement of active and intelligent elements, but rather a functional combination of spoilage control and spoilage reporting. In fish packaging systems, active components serve to delay microbial growth, lipid oxidation, and the accumulation of volatile bases, while intelligent components convert residual biochemical changes into visual or digital signals (Figure 1B). As summarized in Table 1, many recent studies have combined pH-responsive colorimetric matrices with antioxidant or antimicrobial agents such as anthocyanins, curcumin, chitosan, essential oils, and metal-based nanomaterials. This indicates that the development of smart packaging for fish is currently moving toward multifunctional platforms where preservation and freshness indicators operate simultaneously, not independently. In addition, the effectiveness of smart packaging systems may vary between fish species. This is due to differences in biochemical composition and the dominant spoilage pathways. Fatty fish species such as salmon, trout, and mackerel contain higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), making them more susceptible to lipid oxidation (Rathod et al., 2021a). On the other hand, lean fish species such as tilapia, carp, Japanese sea bass, and hake are generally more affected by microbial spoilage and the accumulation of volatile basic compounds, highlighting the importance of antimicrobial agents and highly sensitive freshness indicators (Zhang et al., 2025; Parmar et al., 2024). Thus, fish with high fat content rely more on active antioxidant compounds such as anthocyanins, curcumin, polyphenols, and essential oils. This difference indicates that smart packaging systems should be adapted to the specific spoilage characteristics of each fish species.
Table 1
| Fish type | Intelligent system | Detection mechanism | Active compound | Duration | Temperature | Key finding | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rainbow trout | pH indicators | Color change (ΔE values) | Nano zinc oxide (ZnO), pomegranate flower extract nanocapsules (PFEN) | 7 days | 4°C | Colorimetric response to pH changes, correlating with TVB-N values with high sensitivity, detects spoilage before regulatory limit. Active compound enhanced mechanical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties | Choubaki and Baghaei (2025) |
| Mackerel, Sardine, Prawn, Pomfret, Red Snapper, Cuttlefish | Paper-based pH sensor with Methyl Red and Bromocresol Purple | Color change using Methyl Red and Bromocresol Purple indicators | Vacuum packaging | 12 days | 4 °C | Color change using Methyl Red and Bromocresol Purple indicators in response to pH changes, indicating spoilage. - Mechanism of preservation: Vacuum packaging reduces oxygen exposure, inhibiting aerobic bacteria growth and slowing spoilage. | Kumaravel et al. (2025) |
| Indian Mackerel | pH indicator | pH changes, bacterial metabolites (TVBN values and bacterial counts) | Rose petal extract (RPE) containing anthocyanins | Up to 12 days | 2–4 °C | The RPE film extended the shelf life of mackerel from 3 days to 12 days and provided a visual indicator of spoilage through color change. | Kanatt (2021) |
| Hake (Merluccius merluccius) | Temperature indicators | Biochemical changes such as total volatile base-nitrogen (TVB-N) and trimethylamine (TMA); K I -value based on IMP degradation | Carvacrol (antimicrobial agent) | 1–8 h | room temperature | Smart active packaging using predictive models optimizes packaging design and extends shelf life by 18%; main limitation: Need for specific parameters for different food products and complexity of biochemical routes. | Vilas et al. (2020) |
| Salmon | gas sensor | Ammonia (NH3) | Cinnamon essential oil (CEO), cinnamaldehyde (CA), eugenol (EG). | 14 days | 4 °C | The smart packaging system effectively monitors freshness and extends shelf life up to 14 days; main limitation: Need to improve biodegradability and shelf-life extension. | Douaki et al. (2025) |
| Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus niphonius) | pH indicator | Color change in response to pH changes | Antioxidant properties from mangosteen pericarp powder (MPP) | 2 days | 5 °C | pH sensitivity through color change in response to nitrogenous compounds from spoilage. Antioxidant activity from mangosteen pericarp powder to delay oxidative processes. | Liew et al. (2025) |
| Gilthead seabream | pH indicator | pH changes, volatile compounds (ammonia, acetic acid), bacterial metabolites (total volatile base nitrogen) | Shikonin, zinc oxide nanoparticles, butterfly pea anthocyanin | 48 h 14 days | Room temperature Refrigerator | Protein/polysaccharide composite films are effective in monitoring freshness and extending shelf life of fish products; main limitation: Need for further research to improve physical properties and scalability. | Roy et al. (2024) |
| Channel catfish | Colorimetric | pH changes | Curcumin, garlic essential oil, cinnamic acid-modified chitosan nanoparticles (CC NPs) | 5 days | 4 °C | The smart packaging system extends the shelf life of fish from 3 days to 5 days and provides real-time freshness monitoring; main limitation: Variability in label sensitivity. | Li et al. (2025) |
| Trachinotus ovatus | pH indicator | pH changes, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) | Curcumin, perilla essential oil | 7 days | 4°C | The intelligent packaging film is effective in freshness monitoring through real-time color changes and inhibition of odor-causing compounds. The film showed broad-spectrum antibacterial properties in vitro and excellent antioxidant activity. | Wu et al. (2025) |
| Mandarin fish | pH indicator | pH changes, ammonia content | Anthocyanins, cinnamaldehyde | 7 days | 4 °C | The packaging significantly extends the freshness of fish products by reducing total volatile base-nitrogen levels by 13.3%. Nanoparticle-loaded films are produced as smart and active packaging materials to monitor and preserve food freshness by controlling the rate of spoilage. | Zhou et al. (2024) |
| Spanish mackerel | pH indicator | pH changes, nitrogenous compounds | Mangosteen pericarp powder (MPP), Anthocyanin extract (ATH) | 2 days | 5 °C | The starch Mangosteen pericarp powder (MPP) and anthocyanin extract (ATH) from Garcinia mangostana L. These components are responsible for the color change response and antioxidant activity. | Liew et al. (2025) |
| Trout | pH indicator | pH changes, ammonia | Eggplant skin extract (ESE), Savory essential oil (SEO) | 5 days | 4 °C | The developed double-layer film effectively detected spoilage in trout fish while controlling pH, oxidation, and microbial changes during storage. | Jebel et al. (2025) |
| Chinese grass carp | Self-healing hydrogel film | pH changes, ammonia concentrations | Curcumin embedded in ZIF-8 (Cur@ZIF-8) | 9 days | 4 °C | The self-healing hydrogel film with Cur@ZIF-8 significantly extends the shelf life of fish to 9 days as an active packaging and provides real-time monitoring of freshness. | Wang et al. (2025) |
| Anchovy fish | pH indicator | The detection mechanism involves a pH-responsive colorimetric indication using a κ-carrageenan/pectin matrix with red cabbage anthocyanin. | Red cabbage anthocyanin (RCA) | 40 days | 4 °C | The bilayer film is effective in real-time freshness monitoring and preservation of fish products as antimicrobial and barrier properties. | Banu et al. (2026) |
| Rainbow fish | pH indicator | pH changes, volatile compounds (ammonia gas) | Red cabbage anthocyanins | 1 day 9 days | 25 °C 4 °C | The pH-sensitive indicator smart film based on BSG/chitosan with RCA is effective for monitoring fish freshness and The DPPH radical scavenging activity of smart BSG/chitosan films improved from 23 to 90.32% with increasing RCA. | Nadi et al. (2023) |
| Mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi) | Colorimetric sensor | Ammonia vapor | Anthocyanins, curcumin, zein, chondroitin sulfate, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) | 7 days | 4 °C | The intelligent packaging films effectively delayed fish spoilage and provided real-time freshness monitoring through color changes. | Zhou et al. (2026) |
| Mandarin fish | pH indicator | pH changes, volatile ammonia | Curcumin, zein, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), carrageenan | 3 days | 4 °C | The composite films effectively monitor and extend the freshness of packaged fish by changing color in response to pH andenhanced antioxidant activity. | Han et al. (2023) |
| Trout and Silver Carp | pH indicator | pH changes, total volatile basic amines | Curcumin - Matrix materials: Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and thermoplastic starch (TPS) | 7 days | 25 °C | The study demonstrates the effectiveness of using curcumin as a natural pH indicator in smart packaging for monitoring food freshness; The curcumin content inhibits the release of TVBN, thereby delaying the spoilage. | Hazer and Aytac (2023) |
| Salmon | SWCNT gas sensor | Gas sensor for real-time food monitoring, specifically detecting ammonia (NH3) levels. | Antioxidants [cinnamaldehyde (CA) and eugenol (EG)] and antibacterial agents. | 14 days | 4 °C | The intelligent component uses a gas sensor to detect spoilage by measuring ammonia (NH3) levels. The active component releases antioxidants (cinnamaldehyde and eugenol) when spoilage is detected. | Douaki et al. (2025) |
| Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) | Color-changing properties depending on pH environment | Color change due to pH changes | Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), montmorillonite, curcumin-capsaicin mixture, gelatin hydrolysate | 12 days | 4 °C | The intelligent packaging components include potential color-changing indicators based on pH changes, although their effectiveness was limited in this study due to low curcumin concentration. Active components like polyphenols and nanoclay provide antimicrobial effects and reduce gas permeability, preserving the fish by limiting microbial growth and oxidation. | Nowak et al. (2025) |
| Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) | pH Indicator | The intelligent packaging system detects spoilage through pH changes, volatile compounds, and bacterial metabolites | Phycocyanin (antioxidant and antimicrobial), Nanochitosan (antimicrobial) | 14 days | 4 °C | PVA/NCH/PC-NC with 2% PC is effective in freshness monitoring and preservation of fish fillets; main limitation: Control sample had higher moisture content and lower tensile strength. | Abed et al. (2025) |
| Atlantic salmon | pH indicators | color change from light yellow to orange in alkaline environment | Antimicrobial agents (curcumin, capsaicin, chitosan, silver nanoparticles), Antioxidant agents (curcumin, capsaicin, gelatin hydrolysate), UV light barrier (curcumin, gelatin hydrolysate, montmorillonite) | 12 days | 4 °C | The paper describes the antimicrobial and antioxidant mechanisms of active components like curcumin, capsaicin, chitosan, and silver nanoparticles in preserving refrigerated fish. Color change from light yellow to orange in alkaline environment. | Nowak et al. (2024) |
| Albacora Tuna | colorimetric sensors (pH indicator) | Volatile compounds (ammonia), pH change | Garlic extract | 12 h | 28 °C | The smart indicator label effectively monitors fish freshness by changing color from dark red to yellow as the fish decomposes. Active paper with garlic extract minimizes quality degradation. | Yolanda et al. (2020) |
| Pengasius | pH indicator (colorimetric) | Color change (RCA indicator changes from red to pink-red to pink-blue for fish) | Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) with 70% N2 + 30% CO2 | Up to 3 weeks | 5 °C | Color change of RCA and NR indicators in response to pH changes, correlated with microbial growth and gas composition. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) affects storage time, temperature, and packaging conditions. | Faisal et al. (2024) |
| Shrimp | pH indicator | Color change in response to pH variations and ammonia sensitivity. | Citronella essential oil encapsulated in β-cyclodextrin (OBDs) as an antimicrobial agent | 5 days | 4 °C | The intelligent packaging film detects spoilage through pH sensitivity and ammonia responsiveness, indicated by colorimetric shifts. Preservation is achieved through the antibacterial action of citronella oil, released over 40 h | Yan et al. (2025) |
| Chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus niphonius), Largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) | : Freshness sensor (color change in response to ammonia concentrations) | The freshness indicator uses a color change mechanism (yellow to black to purple). | eco-DEHCH (eco-friendly plasticizer), Breathron film (hydrophobic and gas-permeable membrane) | 7 days | 4, 10, and 20 °C | The intelligent packaging indicators detect spoilage through pH-sensitive color changes in response to ammonia release from decomposing fish. Active components like Breathron film preserve sensor integrity by blocking moisture. Synergistic interactions occur between pH sensors and hydrophobic films, enhancing spoilage detection while preventing moisture interference. Temperature affects performance, with more pronounced color changes at higher temperatures. Chemical interactions involve ammonia affecting pH and indicator color. | Kim et al. (2023) |
| Shrimp | pH indicator | Color change in response to pH changes. | Natural dyes (Roselle anthocyanin and curcumin) providing antioxidant properties | 10 days | 4 °C | The intelligent pH-sensing indicator reacts with volatile amines (NH3) produced by shrimp spoilage, causing color changes indicative of freshness or spoilage. The addition of natural dyes (curcumin and anthocyanin) increases the antioxidant action of the film, potentially preserving nutritional quality. | Mohseni and Moeinpour (2023) |
| Largefin longbarbel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) | pH indicator (Vaccinium oxycoccus pigment) | Color change from purplish-red to greyish-blue in response to pH changes. | Antioxidant (delphinidin) | 10 days | 4 °C ± 1 °C | Vaccinium oxycoccus pigment changes color in response to pH changes, indicating spoilage. Delphinidin (Dp) is released to minimize oxidative rancidity and extend shelf life. | Yin et al. (2023) |
| Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) | Enzymatic Time Temperature Integrators (TTI) | Color change from green to yellow, orange, and finally red due to enzymatic hydrolysis of a lipid substrate. | CO2 emitters | Up 2 days | 4.8 °C | The study uses Time Temperature Integrators (TTIs) to monitor the shelf-life of gilthead seabream fillets. The TTIs are modeled based on enzyme concentration, temperature, and storage time, allowing for real-time monitoring of product quality. CO2 emitters are used to maintain a stable CO2 concentration in the package, which inhibits microbial growth and extends shelf-life. | Taoukis (2022) |
| Trout | pH indicators (colorimetric pH-responsive indicators using anthocyanins from barberry and saffron) | Color change in response to pH and ammonia levels. | Antioxidant and antimicrobial agents (anthocyanins) | 72 h | 25 °C | The intelligent packaging indicators detect spoilage through color changes in response to pH and ammonia levels, while active components like anthocyanins provide antioxidant and antimicrobial effects to preserve fish. | Tavassoli et al. (2022) |
| Tuna | pH indicator | Color change using Methyl Red and Bromothymol Blue. | Edible coating made from sago starch with 0.5% lemongrass oil (antimicrobial agent) | 18 days | 4 °C | pH change detection by indicator label due to protein degradation by spoilage bacteria. Edible coating acts as a barrier to reduce oxidation and hydrolysis; lemongrass oil has antimicrobial properties. | Julyaningsih et al. (2020) |
| Salmon (Salmo salar) | Curcumin acts as a visual indicator of freshness due to its color change when oxidized. | Color change due to curcumin oxidation. | Curcumin (antimicrobial and antioxidant properties), lemongrass oil (solubilizer and antimicrobial agent), citral (solubilizer and antimicrobial agent). | 14 days | ~4 °C | Curcumin acts as a visual indicator of freshness due to its color change as it oxidizes over time. Curcumin inhibits biogenic amine formation and has antioxidant properties through the breakdown of its phenolic chain and donation of hydrogen atoms. | Tkaczewska et al. (2024) |
| Tuna (Thunnus Sp.) | pH indicator | Color change from deep red to yellow and then green using Bromothymol blue and Methyl Red. | Edible coating with citronella oil (antimicrobial agent) | 18 days | 4 ± 1 °C | Color change due to pH changes caused by volatile amine molecules from microbial activity. Citronella oil acts as an antimicrobial agent by breaking down bacterial cell membranes. | Latief et al. (2023) |
Integration of active and intelligent components within smart packaging systems for fish products.
*All studies included in this table are categorized as smart packaging systems, which combine both active and intelligent functionalities. The table further specifies the type of active and intelligent components applied in each study.
The integration of intelligent packaging systems in fish products is essentially designed to detect physicochemical and biochemical changes related to quality deterioration, which are then interpreted visually or digitally and can be assessed in real time. Based on various studies that have been conducted, intelligent packaging systems for monitoring fish freshness are generally designed to be able to respond to chemical changes associated with spoilage, particularly the accumulation of volatile basic compounds such as ammonia, trimethylamine (TMA), and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), which serve as indicators of product quality deterioration. These compounds will trigger changes in pH within the package headspace or on the product’s surface (Zhang et al., 2023; Oduse et al., 2025). Therefore, dominant systems are pH-sensitive indicators, combined with active compounds such as anthocyanins, curcumin, essential oils, chitosan, metal nanoparticles, or polyphenols (Table 1). pH-based color indicators generally utilize anthocyanin compounds from plant sources such as red cabbage, purple sweet potatoes, butterfly pea flowers, and grape pomace, as the most widely adopted and effective system (Basid et al., 2025; Rahmadhia et al., 2023; Ponnusamy et al., 2024; Ebrahimi et al., 2025). The high percentage is related to high sensitivity to pH changes, clear color changes and reversible properties, compatibility with biodegradable matrices, and a strong correlation with the formation of TVB-N during fish spoilage (Kwak and Min, 2024; Omar et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022).
At the same time, active packaging integrated into smart packaging systems will extend the shelf life of fish products by inhibiting deterioration mechanisms. According to the data in Table 1, active agents such as essential oils, chitosan, metal nanoparticles, plant polyphenols, and bio-based extracts are classified as antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds. These compounds can effectively suppress microbial growth, slow down fat oxidation, and reduce the accumulation of volatile compounds resulting from spoilage (Vieira et al., 2022; Elgadir and Mariod, 2025). This effect is evident with longer storage durations at lower temperatures and shorter durations at higher temperatures. Temperature serves as a factor influencing the performance of both intelligent and active components, with consistently lower temperatures enhancing the stability of active compounds, slowing the rate of spoilage, and improving sensor response (Co et al., 2016; Basdeki et al., 2024). Thus, these data indicate that the integration of active and intelligent systems in fish products produces a synergistic effect that preserves quality while simultaneously monitoring freshness dynamically. The active component will delay spoilage by controlling microbial and oxidative processes, while the intelligent system will provide real-time product information, thereby enabling precise decision making in storage and distribution.
Although there have been promising developments, several challenges remain before smart packaging systems can be widely implemented in commercial fish supply chains. Although active compounds contribute significantly to spoilage control, the migration of bioactive substances into fish products remains a major safety concern. Excessive migration can alter sensory properties or cause toxicological issues, especially when nanomaterials, metal-based additives, or highly concentrated bioactive agents are used (Ntzimani and Tsironi, 2026). In addition, the interaction between active and smart components can affect system performance because antimicrobial and antioxidant agents may modify the production of degradation metabolites that serve as freshness indicator targets (Ntzimani and Tsironi, 2026; Lavanya et al., 2024). Furthermore, the stability and reliability of smart sensors in the long term may be affected by environmental factors such as temperature fluctuations, humidity, light exposure, and mechanical pressure occurring during transportation and storage. These limitations highlight the need for further optimization and validation under real-world supply chain conditions.
7 Sustainability perspectives and alignment with circular economy and SDGs
The development of smart packaging systems for fish products has been extensively pursued (Figure 1C), that offers significant sustainability from environmental, economic, and social perspectives. From an environmental standpoint, the use of biodegradable polymers, natural bioactive compounds, and edible coatings can reduce dependence on conventional petroleum-based plastics and minimize packaging waste (Oliveira et al., 2025; Marotta et al., 2025). In addition, the ability of active and intelligent packaging to extend shelf life and monitor freshness in real time contributes to the reduction of food and resource loss and waste, which is a major global environmental issue. Economically, this can influence decisions in distribution or sales, thus increasing supply chain efficiency by reducing losses due to spoilage, enhancing product value, and enabling better inventory management through real-time quality monitoring. Socially, intelligent packaging offers improved food safety, transparency, and consumer trust by providing easily accessible information about product quality and freshness (El Guerraf et al., 2024).
The development of smart packaging technology is also in line with several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), namely through the reduction of post-harvest losses (Sundaresan et al., 2024), SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by improving food safety (Sundaresan et al., 2024; Boudalia et al., 2026), SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) through advances in innovative packaging technology (Sundaresan et al., 2024; Sagar and Rani, 2026), and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), namely by promoting resource efficiency and waste reduction (Sundaresan et al., 2024; Kant and Kaur, 2025). The integration of biodegradable materials and the use of natural resources, such as plant extracts and marine-based biopolymers, also support the principles of a circular economy by encouraging the reuse of resources, reducing environmental impact, and promoting sustainable material cycles. Therefore, advances in smart packaging not only improve food quality and safety, but also contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food system.
8 Conclusion and future perspective
The rapid development of smart packaging technology has created new opportunities to enhance the preservation, monitoring, and management of fresh fish products throughout the supply chain. Based on the results of the reviewed studies, pH-responsive intelligent packaging, particularly those based on anthocyanins, is the most widely adopted freshness monitoring method. This is due to its high sensitivity, visual simplicity, biodegradable nature, and strong correlation with spoilage indicators such as TVB-N and volatile amines. At the same time, active packaging systems containing natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents, including chitosan, essential oils, plant polyphenols, and bioactive extracts, have demonstrated significant effectiveness in suppressing microbial growth, inhibiting lipid oxidation, and extending shelf life. The integration of these technologies into multifunctional smart packaging platforms provides a promising strategy that simultaneously maintains product quality and enables real-time freshness assessment.
Although significant potential has been demonstrated, several crucial challenges remain for large-scale implementation of intelligent packaging systems. The integration of active and intelligent components increases the complexity of formulation and design, thus requiring careful optimization to ensure functional compatibility, stability, and food safety without compromising performance. In addition, the reliability of intelligent systems depends on accurate sensor calibration, reliable signal interpretation, and stability under fluctuating storage and transportation conditions. From an industrial perspective, economic feasibility remains a primary concern as multifunctional materials, bioactive compounds, colorimetric indicators, and sensor technologies often increase production costs compared to conventional packaging systems. Although these additional costs can be partially offset by reducing product loss, spoilage, and waste, comprehensive cost–benefit evaluations under commercial conditions remain limited.
Furthermore, the long-term stability and accuracy of intelligent sensors can be affected by environmental factors such as temperature fluctuations, humidity, light exposure, and mechanical pressure encountered throughout the real-world supply chain. These factors may reduce sensor reliability and limit practical large-scale implementation. Therefore, future research should focus on developing cost-effective multifunctional materials with controlled release properties, improved sensor stability, and streamlined manufacturing processes suitable for industrial-scale production. Greater emphasis should also be placed on techno-economic assessment, pilot-scale validation, and the integration of digital technologies such as Internet of Things (IoT)-based monitoring systems for real-time quality tracking throughout the supply chain. Overall, an integrated smart packaging system that combines active and intelligent functions represents a promising strategy for improving the safety, quality, and transparency of fresh fish products. However, the success of its implementation at the industrial level will be influenced by the resolution of several remaining challenges, such as safety related to substance migration, long-term sensor stability, cost-effectiveness, large-scale production capability, regulatory approval, as well as validation under actual supply chain conditions. Therefore, ongoing cross-disciplinary research and application at the pilot scale are important before this technology can be widely implemented in commercial fish packaging applications.
Statements
Author contributions
SR: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SH: Data curation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. AA: Data curation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. SM: Validation, Writing – review & editing. AD: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication.This research was funded by Interational Colaborator research (I-Core) Progam Equity WCU Skema I-CORE A-Post Graduate Research (PGR) nomor: 05589/UN4.1.7/PT.01.03/2025.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical, resource, and financial support from Interational Colaborator research (I-Core) Progam Equity WCU Skema I-CORE A-Post Graduate Research (PGR).
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. Generative AI was used solely to assist with language editing, grammar correction, sentence restructuring, and improvement of readability. All scientific content, literature selection, analysis, interpretation, conclusions, and final manuscript revisions were conducted and verified by the authors. The authors take full responsibility for the accuracy, originality, and integrity of the manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
1
AbedS.NowruziB.AmirS.AnvarA. (2025). Production of Oncorhynchus mykiss biosensor based on polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan nanocomposite using phycocyanin during refrigerated storage. Sci. Rep., 1–22. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-85284-9
2
Abedi-firoozjahR.ParandiE.HeydariM.Kolahdouz-nasiriA. (2023). Betalains as promising natural colorants in smart/active food packaging. Food Chem.424, 1–22. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136408
3
AbekoonT.ButhpitiyaB. L. S. K.SajindraH.SamarakoonE. R. J.JayakodyJ. A. D. C. A.KantamaneniK.et al. (2024). Discover sustainability a comprehensive review to evaluate the synergy of intelligent food packaging with modern food technology and artificial intelligence. Discov. Sustain.5:7. doi: 10.1007/s43621-024-00371-7
4
AdianiV.GuptaS.VariyarP. S. (2021). A simple time temperature indicator for real time microbial assessment in minimally processed fruits. J. Food Eng.311:110731. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2021.110731
5
ObaidiAAlHaskaracaGAyhanZGultekinE (2024) Simulation and validation of a novel colorimetric layer intelligent indicators with different binders to monitor freshness of Atlantic Bonito (Sarda sarda) under two different atmospheres. Packag. Technol. Sci.37:1131–1144. doi: 10.1002/pts.2849
6
ArbajayantiR. D.NurhayatiT.NurilmalaM.RolinF.StudiP.HasilT.et al. (2025). Analisis Aktivitas Enzim Tripsin dari Pyloric Caeca serta Kandungan Nutrisi Ikan Sebelah (Pseudorhombus sp.) dan Kakap Merah (Lutjanus campechanus, Poey 1860). J FishtecH14, 75–83. doi: 10.36706/fishtech.v14i1.23662
7
BanuA.ShaluS. K.RajarajeswariG. R. (2026). Fabrication and characterization of biodegradable anthocyanin-infused bilayer packaging film for real-time colorimetric detection of fish spoilage. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.336:149300. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.149300
8
BarbosaC. H.AndradeM. A.VilarinhoF.LuA.SilvaA. S. (2021). Active edible packaging. Encyclopedialopedia1, 360–370. doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia1020030
9
BasdekiE.MpenetouE.PapazoglouP.LadakisD.FlemetakisE.KoutinasA.et al. (2024). Evaluation of a calcium carbonate-based container for transportation and storage of fresh fish as a sustainable alternative to polystyrene boxes. Sustainability16:130. doi: 10.3390/su16010130
10
BasidN.PrasetyaA.IlyaF.MasfufahS.NgadiwiyanaN. (2025). pH-sensitive chitosan/graphene oxide films enriched with red cabbage anthocyanins for visual spoilage detection in chicken meat. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.329:147866. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.147866
11
BeshaiH.SarabhaG. K.RathiP.AlamA. U.DeenM. J. (2020). Freshness monitoring of packaged vegetables. Appl. Sci.10:7937. doi: 10.3390/app10217937
12
BoudaliaS.SymeonG. K.DotasV.GueboudjiZ.KouadriI. (2026). The valorization of agrifood byproducts and waste to advance the sustainable development goals: current state and new perspectives. Sustainability18, 1–36. doi: 10.3390/su18052165
13
BrandelliA. (2024). Nanocomposites and their application in antimicrobial packaging. Front. Chem.12, 1–13. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2024.1356304
14
Canizales-RodríguezD. F.Rodríguez-FélixF.Tapia-HernándezJ. A.Del-Toro-SánchezC. L.Ruíz-CruzS.AubourgS. P.et al. (2024). Poly (lactic acid) fibrous film with betalains from pitaya (Stenocereus thurberi) by electrospinning for potential use as smart food packaging. Coatings14, 1–31. doi: 10.3390/coatings14121581
15
ChoubakiS.BaghaeiH. (2025). Smart indicator for fish freshness monitoring: a chitosan/gelatin/zinc oxide nanoparticle composite incorporating pomegranate flower anthocyanin extract nanocapsules. Food Sci. Nutr.13, 1–20. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.70944
16
ChunH.KimB.ShinH. S. (2014). Evaluation of a freshness indicator for quality of fish products during storage. Food Sci. Biotechnol.23, 1719–1725. doi: 10.1007/s10068-014-0235-9
17
CoM.CnR.TkS. G. (2016). Packaging interventions in low temperature preservation of fish-a review. MOJ Food Process. Technol.2, 13–25. doi: 10.15406/mojfpt.2016.02.00026
18
DirpanA.DjalalM.AinaniA. F. (2022). A simple combination of active and intelligent packaging based on garlic extract and indicator solution in extending and monitoring the meat quality stored at cold temperature. Foods11, 1–15. doi: 10.3390/foods11101495
19
DirpanA.LatiefR.SyarifuddinA.RahmanA. N. F.PutraR. P.HidayatS. H. (2018). The use of colour indicator as a smart packaging system for evaluating mangoes Arummanis (Mangifera indica L. Var. Arummanisa) freshness. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.157, 1–7. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/157/1/012031
20
DouakiA.AhmedM.LongoE.WindischG.RiazR.InamS.et al. (2025). Battery-free, stretchable, and autonomous smart packaging. Adv. Sci.12:2417539. doi: 10.1002/advs.202417539
21
EbrahimiA.AhangariH.HamishehkarH.AmjadiS. (2025). Industrial crops & products production of a smart multilayer packaging system based on cellulose acetate nanofibers containing carvone nanoliposomes and potato starch film containing red grape anthocyanins. Ind. Crop. Prod.238:122380. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2025.122380
22
EchegarayN.GoksenG.KumarM.SharmaR.HassounA.LorenzoJ. M.et al. (2024). A critical review on protein-based smart packaging systems: understanding the development, characteristics, innovations, and potential applications. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.64, 8633–8648. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2202256
23
GuerrafAElBazzaouiMZianiIBazzaouiEAJadiS BenSherFet al (2024) Smart conducting polymer innovations for sustainable and safe food packaging technologies. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.231–49. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.70045
24
ElgadirM. A.MariodA. A. (2025). Effect of selected food additives on quality of meat and meat products, recent advances. Agric. Food Bioact. Compd.2, 76–85. doi: 10.31989/afbc.v2i4.1615
25
El-NaggarM. E.ShalabyE. S.Abd-Al-AleemA. H.YoussefA. M. (2021). Nanomaterials and nanofibers as wound dressing mats: an overview of the fundamentals, properties and applications. Egypt. J. Chem.64, 7447–7473. doi: 10.21608/ejchem.2021.91351.4345
26
EnyidiU. D.IkeF. (2025). Effects of Gongronema latifolium on the oxidative stability, microbial biota, shelf life, and proximate composition of smoked horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) fillets. J. Aquat. Food Prod. Technol.34, 69–81. doi: 10.1080/10498850.2025.2483202
27
Estrella-osunaD. E.EnriqueM.JesD.LizetteC.Ocaño-higueraV. M. (2022). Nanoencapsulation of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) peel extract in electrospun gelatin nanofiber: preparation, characterization, and in vitro release. Nano12:2303. doi: 10.3390/nano12132303
28
Estrella-osunaD. E.Ruiz-cruzS.RodrF.Figueroa-enrC. E.GonzH.FernD.et al. (2024). Rheological properties and antioxidant activity of gelatin-based edible coating incorporating tomato. Gels10, 1–14. doi: 10.3390/gels10100624
29
FaisalM.JacobsonT.MeineretL.VorupP.BordalloH. N.JudasJ.et al. (2024). Development of pH indicator composite films based on anthocyanins and neutral red for monitoring minced meat and fish in modified gas atmosphere (MAP). Coatings14:725. doi: 10.3390/coatings14060725
30
Figueroa-enriquezC. E.RodrF.Castro-enriquezD. D.Gonzalez-riosH.Madera-santanaT. J.Burruel-ibarraS. E.et al. (2025). Edible coating of sodium alginate with gelatin nanoparticles and pitaya extract (Stenocereus thurberi): physicochemical and antioxidant properties. J. Food Qual.2025, 1–13. doi: 10.1155/jfq/5756522
31
Figueroa-EnríquezC. E.Rodríguez-FélixF.Ruiz-CruzS.Castro-EnriquezD. D.Gonzalez-RiosH.Perez-AlvarezJ. Á.et al. (2024). Application of active packaging films for extending the shelf life of red meats: a review. PRO12, 1–25. doi: 10.3390/pr12102115
32
GökoğluN.YerlikayaP. (2015). “Freezing and frozen storage of fish,” in Seafood Chilling, Refrigeration and Freezing: Science and Technology, (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.).
33
GuptaP. (2023). Role of oxygen absorbers in food as packaging material, their characterization and applications. J. Food Sci. Technol.:0123456789. doi: 10.1007/s13197-023-05681-8
34
HanY.ZhouM.JulianD.LiuF.ChengC.XiongJ.et al. (2023). Investigation of a novel smart and active packaging materials: nanoparticle-filled carrageenan-based composite films. Carbohydr. Polym.301:120331. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120331
35
HazerS.AytacA. (2023). Monitoring food quality - effect of curcumin in the development of polyethylene / thermoplastic starch based smart packaging. J. Vinyl Addit. Technol.29, 826–839. doi: 10.1002/vnl.22004
36
HidayatS. H.DirpanA.AdiansyahDjalalM.RahmanA. N. F.AinaniA. F. (2019). Sensitivity determination of indicator paper as smart packaging elements in monitoring meat freshness in cold temperature. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.343, 1–4. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/343/1/012076
37
HidayatS. H.NovrainA. Y.Irwan (2025). A decade of intelligent packaging for meat with insight from smart packaging literature: trends, innovations, and future prospects - a systematic review and network analysis. Canrea J Food Technol Nutr Culin8, 201–235. doi: 10.20956/canrea.v8i2.1694
38
HossainK. M. Z.FelfelR. M.OgbilikanaP. S.ThakkerD.GrantD. M.ScotchfordC. A.et al. (2018). Single solvent-based film casting method for the production of porous polymer films. Mater. Eng.303, 1–7. doi: 10.1002/mame.201700628
39
HuC.LiuX.XiaoT.DengY.LiuD.BaiY.et al. (2025). Elucidating the interplay between lipases and lipid metabolites during the processing of dry-cured Wuchang fish (Megalobrama amblycephala). Food Sci. Anim. Prod.3, 1–11. doi: 10.26599/FSAP.2025.9240137
40
JebelF. S.RoufegarinejadL.AlizadehA.AmjadiS. (2025). Development and characterization of a double-layer smart packaging system consisting of polyvinyl alcohol electrospun nanofibers and gelatin film for fish fillet. Food Chem.462, 1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140985
41
JiaoX.ZhuJ.YeW.ZouH.YanB.ZhangN. (2025). Artificial intelligence in smart seafood safety across the supply chains: recent advances and future prospects. Trends Food Sci. Technol.163, 1–18. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2025.105161
42
Jiménez-ruízE. I.Valdez-hurtadoS.Ocaño-higueraV. M.Canizales-rodríguezD. F.Garzón-garcíaA. M.Marquez-riosE.et al. (2025). Effect of ice storage on freshness and biochemical, physical, chemical, and microbiological quality of leg muscle samples from bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus). PRO13, 1–20. doi: 10.3390/pr13030910
43
JulyaningsihAHLatiefRDirpanA (2020) The making of smart and active packaging on tuna fillet. In: IOP Conf Series: Earth and Environmental Science
44
KamaruddinI.DirpanA.BastianF. (2021). The novel trend of bacterial cellulose as biodegradable and oxygen scavenging films for food packaging application: an integrative review the novel trend of bacterial cellulose as biodegradable and oxygen scavenging films for food packaging application. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.807, 1–11. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/807/2/022066
45
KanattS. R. (2021). Active/smart carboxymethyl cellulose-polyvinyl alcohol composite films containing rose petal extract for fish packaging. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.56, 5753–5761. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.15095
46
KantA.KaurA. (2025). Leadership & innovation challenges in adoption of sustainable packaging. J. Informatics Educ. Res.5, 985–996. doi: 10.52783/jier.v5i1.2081
47
KimD. Y.ParkS. W.ShinH. S. (2023). Fish freshness indicator for sensing fish quality during storage. Foods12:1810. doi: 10.3390/foods12091801
48
KumarP.KishoreA.KumariK.MorR. S. (2022). “Communicative packaging Systems for Safety of food products,” in Operations and Supply Chain Management in the Food Industry, ().
49
KumaravelB.AmuthaA. L.MaryT. P. M.AgrawalA.SinghA.SaranS. (2025). Automated seafood freshness detection and preservation analysis using machine learning and paper - based pH sensors. Sci. Rep.15, 1–14. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-08177-x
50
KwakM.MinS. C. (2024). Monitoring meat freshness with intelligent colorimetric labels containing red cabbage anthocyanins copigmented with gelatin and gallic acid. Foods13:3464. doi: 10.3390/foods13213464
51
LatiefR.DirpanA.DjalalM.RamadhaniI. S.JulyaningsihA. H. (2023). Intelligent and active packaging system application in evaluating and maintaining the tuna (Thunnus sp.) fillets’ quality at cold temperature. Curr. Res. Nutr. Food Sci.11:627. doi: 10.12944/CRNFSJ.11.2.14
52
LavanyaM.NamasivayamS. K. R.JohnA. (2024). Developmental formulation principles of food preservatives by nanoencapsulation-fundamentals, application, and challenges. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol.196, 7503–7533. doi: 10.1007/s12010-024-04943-1
53
LeeG. Y.LeeS.ShinH. S. (2016). Evaluation of gas freshness indicator for determination of skate (Raja kenojei) quality during storage. Food Sci. Biotechnol.25, 1497–1500. doi: 10.1007/s10068-016-0232-2
54
LiL.SuQ.ZhaoQ.RenL.XuK.WuQ.et al. (2025). Preparation and evaluation of gelatin-based films with colorimetric/fluorescent response, enhanced hydrophobicity and stability for smart fish packaging. Food Hydrocoll.161, 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2024.110878
55
LiZ.WangY.JiangY.ChenL.YuanM.ZhaoL.et al. (2026). The impact of chlorogenic acid liposomes dip-coating on the physicochemical quality and microbial diversity of low-salt cured fish during refrigerated storage. Foods15, 1–21. doi: 10.3390/foods15020345
56
LiewZ. K.PoonJ. J.CheokC. Y.TanM. C.KiewP. L. (2025). Creating smart packaging film with Garcinia mangostana L. pericarp powder for fish fillets monitoring. Period. Polytech. Chem. Eng.69, 575–585. doi: 10.3311/PPch.42201
57
MarottaA.BorrielloA.KhanM. R.CavellaS.AmbrogiV.TorrieriE. (2025). Boosting food packaging sustainability through the valorization of agri-food waste and by-products. Polymers17:735. doi: 10.3390/polym17060735
58
MeenuM.KaurA.KatiyarS.MradulaM.RanaH. (2025). Development and innovations in collagen-based packaging for enhancing food safety and shelf life. Trends Food Sci. Technol.165, 1–27. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2025.105321
59
MkhariT.AdeyemiJ. O.FawoleO. A. (2025). Recent advances in the fabrication of intelligent packaging for food preservation: a review. PRO13, 1–49. doi: 10.3390/pr13020539
60
MohanC. O.AbinJ.KishoreP.PandaS. K.RavishankarC. N. (2019). Effect of vacuum and active packaging on the biochemical and microbial quality of Indian oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps) during iced storage. J. Packag. Technol. Res.3, 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s41783-018-00053-6
61
MohseniF. S.MoeinpourS. F. (2023). Development of a pH-sensing indicator for shrimp freshness monitoring: curcumin and anthocyanin-loaded gelatin films. Food Sci. Nutr.11, 3898–3910. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.3375
62
Moura-alvesM.EstevesA.CirM.SilvaJ. A. (2023). Antimicrobial and antioxidant edible films and coatings in the shelf-life improvement of chicken meat. Foods12, 1–13. doi: 10.3390/foods12122308
63
MustafaM. F. M. S.NavaranjanN.DemirovicA. (2024). Food cold chain logistics and management: a review of current development and emerging trends. J. Agric. Food Res.18:101343. doi: 10.1016/j.jafr.2024.101343
64
NadiM.MohammadS.RazaviA.ShahrampourD. (2023). Fabrication of green colorimetric smart packaging based on basil seed gum/chitosan/red cabbage anthocyanin for real-time monitoring of fish freshness. Food Sci. Nutr., 6360–6375. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.3574
65
NasiriA.ZeinaliT.AnsarifarE. (2025). Electrospun polyvinyl alcohol / chitosan nanofibers film loaded with artemisia essential oil: a strategy for extending shelf life and enhancing quality of minced beef. Food Sci. Nutr.13, 1–13. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.71330
66
NasutionH.HarahapH.JuliantiE.SafitriA.JaafarM. (2023). Smart packaging based on polylactic acid: the effects of antibacterial and antioxidant agents from natural extracts on physical–mechanical properties, colony reduction, perishable food shelf life, and future prospective. Polymers (Basel)15, 1–21. doi: 10.3390/polym15204103
67
NawazT.FatimaM.ZakirS.ShahH.AfzalM. (2020). Coating effect of rosemary extract combined with chitosan on storage quality of mori (Cirrhinus mrigala). J. Food Process. Preserv.44, 1–27. doi: 10.1111/jfpp.14833
68
NowakN.TkaczewskaJ.CholewaA.WiktoriaW. (2025). Multi-layer active biopolymer system as a perspective for improving the quality and scope of applying semi-rigid biodegradable packaging. Food Bioprocess Technol.18, 2682–2696. doi: 10.1007/s11947-024-03617-4
69
NowakN.TkaczewskaJ.GrzebieniarzW.JuszczakL.MazurT. (2024). Active and intelligent four - layer films based on chitosan, gelatin, furcellaran and active ingredients—preparation, characterisation and application on salmon. Food Bioprocess Technol., 1862–1875. doi: 10.1007/s11947-023-03238-3
70
NtzimaniA.TsironiT. (2026). Balancing functionality and safety in food packaging coatings. Foods.15:571. doi: 10.3390/foods15030571
71
OduseK. A.MakindeT.SainiA.AlvesR. T.RetaV. L.TelloB. M. (2025). Development of intelligent packaging for real-time monitoring of the freshness of Canadian fish (tilapia and salmon) and pork during storage. Int. Food Res. J.32, 186–194. doi: 10.47836/ifrj.32.1.13
72
OliveiraI.PintoT.AfonsoS.KaraM.SzymanowskaU.GonçalvesB. (2025). Sustainability in bio-based edible films, coatings, and packaging for small fruits. Appl. Sci.15, 1–37. doi: 10.3390/app15031462
73
OmarS. R.NohA. A.RohaizanA. N. (2022). The potential use of anthocyanin in butterfly pea (Clinoteria ternatea) petals as colorimetric indicator in intelligent food packaging article. Malays. J. Sci. Heal. Technol.8, 71–76. doi: 10.33102/mjosht.v8i1.243
74
Ozuna-valenciaK. H.Graciano-verdugoA. Z.Quintero-reyesI. E.IsbethY. (2024). The application of organic and inorganic nanoparticles incorporated in edible coatings and their effect on the physicochemical and microbiological properties of seafood. PRO12, 1–32. doi: 10.3390/pr12091889
75
ParmarB. K.MohiteA. S.PathanD. I.DesaiA. S.WasaveS. M. (2024). The use of herbs and spices in fish preservation at chilled temperature storage: opportunities and challenges. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.59, 6758–6768. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.17372
76
PonnusamyA.KhanA.ProdpranT. (2024). Multifunctional fish gelatin film incorporated with chitosan carbon dots and butterfly pea flower anthocyanins for active/smart packaging of Pacific white shrimp. Food Biosci.62:105483. doi: 10.1016/j.fbio.2024.105483
77
ProfettoL.GherardelliM.IadanzaE. (2022). Radio frequency identification (RFID) in health care: Where are we? A scoping review. Health Technol (Berl)12, 879–891. doi: 10.1007/s12553-022-00696-1
78
PuranikS. S. (2016). “Emulsions of Omega-3 fatty acids for better bioavailability and beneficial health effects,” in Omega-3 Fatty Acids, (New York: Springer).
79
QiuX.MeiJ.XieJ. (2026). Effect of plasma-activated water pretreatment combined with high-CO2 modified atmosphere packaging on the quality and microbial profile of half-smooth tongue sole (Cynoglossus semilaevis) during superchilling storage. Foods15, 1–21. doi: 10.3390/foods15030529
80
RahmadhiaS. N.SidqiA. A.SaputraY. A. (2023). Physical properties of tapioca starch-based film indicators with anthocyanin extract from purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) and response to pH changes. Sains Malaysiana52, 1685–1697. doi: 10.17576/jsm-2023-5206-06
81
RahmanifarahKMahmoudianMEskandarabadiSM (2025) Fish active packaging with ZnO/Fe- MMT nanoparticles. Sci. Rep.;15:1–16. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-88008-1 1
82
RajapakshaS. W.ShimizuN. (2021). Development and characterization of functional starch-based films incorporating free or microencapsulated spent black. Molecules26, 1–16. doi: 10.3390/molecules26133898
83
RathodN. B.RanveerR. C.BenjakulS.KimS.PagarkarA. U.PatangeS.et al. (2021a). Recent developments of natural antimicrobials and antioxidants on fish and fishery food products. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.90:e70729. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.70729
84
RathodN. B.RanveerR. C.BhagwatP. K.FoP. D.BenjakulS.PillaiS.et al. (2021b). Cold plasma for the preservation of aquatic food products: an overview. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.20, 1–19. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12815
85
RobbaniS.FahmaF.Sugiarto (2021). Cellusoic pads as matrix sachet antimicrobial: a review. AGROINTEK J Teknol Ind Pertan15, 554–565. doi: 10.21107/agrointek.v15i2.9366
86
Rodríguez-fF.BereniceB.Quintero-reyesI. E.AngelM.Moreno-roblesA. L.Tapia-hernA. (2025). Design and characterization of polylactic acid/cellulose acetate films incorporating black carrot extract rich in anthocyanins as a pH-sensitive food packaging. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.317, 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.144840
87
Rodríguez-FelixF.Corte-Taraz’onJ. A.Rochín-WongS.Fern’andez-QuirozJ. D.Garz’on-GarcíaA. M.Santos-SaucedaI.et al. (2022). Physicochemical, structural, mechanical and antioxidant properties of zein films incorporated with no-ultrafiltered and ultrafiltered betalains extract from the beetroot (Beta vulgaris) bagasse with potential application as active food packaging. J. Food Eng.334, 1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2022.111153
88
RoyS.MalikB.ChawlaR.BoraS.GhoshT.SanthoshR.et al. (2024). Biocompatible film based on protein/polysaccharides combination for food packaging applications: a comprehensive review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol.278:134658. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.134658
89
SagarN. A.RaniN. (2026). Recent trends and innovations in smart and AI-based food packaging: a review. Front. Food Sci. Technol.5, 1–14. doi: 10.3389/frfst.2025.1665055
90
SundaresanJ.GuptaA.SuadamaraR. (2024). Advances in smart food packaging for a sustainable future. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.1488, 1–16. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1488/1/012117
91
TaoukisP. (2022). Atmospheres and monitoring quality and shelf life of packed temperature conditions. Foods11, 1–22. doi: 10.3390/foods11152245
92
TavassoliM.SaniM. A.KhezerlouA.EhsaniA.Jahed-khanikiG.McclementsD. J. (2022). Smart biopolymer-based nanocomposite materials containing pH-sensing colorimetric indicators for food freshness monitoring. Molecules27:3168. doi: 10.3390/molecules27103168
93
TenyangN.TiencheuB.DjikengF. T.TheresiaA.HilaireM.WomeniM. (2019). Alteration of the lipid of red carp (Cyprinus carpio) during frozen storage. Food Sci. Nutr.7, 1371–1378. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.971
94
TkaczewskaJ.KulawikP.NowakN.GrzebieniarzW.KrzyP. (2024). Comparing the effects of duo-functional triple-layer films enriched with different sources of curcumin on the shelf-life of fish. Foods13:3499. doi: 10.3390/foods13213499
95
VázquezD.SuzanS.JulianaB. P. L.MaríliaA. G. (2021). Composition, functional properties, antioxidant activity and efficiency as bacterial growth medium of minced tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) wash-water. Waste Biomass Valoriz.12, 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s12649-020-01324-7
96
Vergel-alfonsoA. A.Arias-avelendaR.Casariego-añoA.GiménezM. J.Ruíz-cruzS.López-coronaB. E.et al. (2025). Development and characterization of pectin and beeswax-based coatings enhanced with anthocyanins and its antioxidant and antifungal properties. PRO13, 1–26. doi: 10.3390/pr13020542
97
VieiraIRSConte-JuniorCACarvalhoAPAde (2022) Recent advances in biobased and biodegradable polymer nanocomposites, nanoparticles, and natural antioxidants for antibacterial and antioxidant food packaging applications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.;21:3673–3716. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12990
98
VilasC.Mauricio-iglesiasM.GarcíaM. R. (2020). Model-based design of smart active packaging systems with antimicrobial activity. Food Packag. Shelf Life24:100446. doi: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2019.100446
99
WangS.MaY.WangF.LuC.LiuY.ZhangS.et al. (2025). Development of cellulose-based self-healing hydrogel smart packaging for fish preservation and freshness indication. Carbohydr. Polym.348:122806. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122806
100
WuH.JiaoC.LiS.LiQ.ZhangZ.ZhouM.et al. (2022). A facile strategy for development of pH-sensing indicator films based on red cabbage puree and polyvinyl alcohol for monitoring fish freshness. Foods11, 1–17. doi: 10.3390/foods11213371
101
WuY.LiZ.WuY.ChenS.ZhaoY.LiC.et al. (2025). Chitosan - titanium dioxide emulsion incorporated pH-responsive active packaging film: real-time freshness monitoring and targeted fishy odor control. Carbohydr. Polym.369:124317. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.124317
102
YanZ.WangK.XiaB.WuJ.ChenH. (2025). Development of intelligent and active gelatin-based packaging film incorporating red onion anthocyanins and encapsulated citronella oil. Foods14, 1–24. doi: 10.3390/foods14193320
103
YeQ.TanJ.HeX.WangC. (2024). Effect of lipase and lipoxygenase on lipid metabolism and the formation of main volatile flavour compounds in fermented fish products: a review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.59, 1248–1259. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.16912
104
YinS.ZhangY.ZhangX.TaoK.LiG. (2023). High - strength collagen/delphinidin film incorporated with Vaccinium oxycoccus pigment for active and intelligent food packaging. Collagen and Leather5:11. doi: 10.1186/s42825-023-00118-6
105
YolandaD. S.DirpanA.NurA.RahmanF.DjalalM. (2020). The potential combination of smart and active packaging in one packaging system in improving and maintaining the quality of fish. Canrea J Food Technol Nutr Culin3, 74–86. doi: 10.20956/canrea.v3i2.357
106
YoussefD. M.AlshubailyF. A.TayelA. A.AlghuthaymiM. A.Al-samanM. A. (2022). Application of nanocomposites from bees products and nano-selenium in edible coating for catfish fillets biopreservation. Polymers (Basel)14, 1–19. doi: 10.3390/polym14122378
107
ZakiH. M. B.EmaraM. M. T.AbdallahM. R. R. (2021). Effect of smoke duration on compositional analysis, deterioration criteria, microbial profile and sensory attributes of marine and freshwater fish: a comparative study. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci.9, 1259–1266. doi: 10.17582/journal.aavs/2021/9.8.1259.1266
108
ZhangZ.TangH.CaiK.LiangR.TongL.OuC. (2023). A novel indicator based on polyacrylamide hydrogel and bromocresol green for monitoring the total volatile basic nitrogen of fish. Foods12, 1–15. doi: 10.3390/foods12213964
109
ZhangY.WangB.LuF.WangL.DingY. (2021). Plant-derived antioxidants incorporated into active packaging intended for vegetables and fatty animal products: a review. Food Addit Contam Part A38, 1237–1248. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1885745
110
ZhangW.WeiY.JinX.LvX.LiuZ.NiL. (2022). Current research in food science spoilage of tilapia by Pseudomonas putida with different adhesion abilities. Curr. Res. Food Sci.5, 710–717. doi: 10.1016/j.crfs.2022.04.002
111
ZhangP.YouX.LiuR.XieD. (2025). Advances in the application of edible antimicrobial coatings and films for fish preservation. J. Food Sci. Available online at: https://discovery.researcher.life/article/advances-in-the-application-of-edible-antimicrobial-coatings-and-films-for-fish-preservation/5692da57f1de38c78d6346ba5af88480
112
ZhouM.ChenM.AiY.HouW.YiY.WangH. (2026). Intelligent κ -carrageenan-based packaging films enhanced with curcumin – anthocyanin – EGCG nanoparticles: fabrication, characterization, and application. Food Control182:111844. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2025.111844
113
ZhouM.HanY.JulianD.ChengC.ChenS. (2024). Co-encapsulation of anthocyanin and cinnamaldehyde in nanoparticle-filled carrageenan films: fabrication, characterization, and active packaging applications. Food Hydrocoll.149:109609. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109609
Summary
Keywords
active, fish, freshness, intelligent, quality, smart packaging
Citation
Ramlah S, Novrain AY, Hidayat SH, Ainani AF, Majumder S and Dirpan A (2026) Critical review of the development and integration of smart (active and intelligent) packaging on fresh fish products. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 10:1904320. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2026.1904320
Received
09 June 2026
Revised
30 June 2026
Accepted
06 July 2026
Published
20 July 2026
Volume
10 - 2026
Edited by
Imene Chentir, Imene CHENTIR, Algeria
Reviewed by
Alper Baran, Atatürk University, Türkiye
Gözde Seval Sözbilen, Olive Research Institute, Türkiye
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Ramlah, Novrain, Hidayat, Ainani, Majumder and Dirpan.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Andi Dirpan, dirpan@unhas.ac.id
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.