The contributions of Controlled-Environment Agriculture in Newfoundland and Labrador

Abstract

This study explores the role of Controlled-Environment Agriculture (CEA), with a focus on greenhouse farming in Newfoundland and Labrador (NL). It examines the potential of CEA to improve food security, lower carbon emissions, and boost economic resilience in a region characterized by harsh climates and heavy reliance on food imports. The research integrates qualitative insights from 20 expert interviews with national statistics, comparative case studies from Quebec and Sweden, and relevant literature. Findings indicate that greenhouse farming can enhance local food availability, improve product quality, and lower transport-related emissions. However, the overall environmental benefits depend on the energy sources used and the operational scale. The study highlights the tension between stakeholder optimism and economic feasibility, cautioning against equating optimism with opportunity. Particular attention is given to energy challenges (high costs, intermittent renewable supply, and scalability barriers), circular-economy opportunities (industrial waste heat, fisheries by-products, and community organic streams), and realistic economic boundaries. By harnessing renewable resources and innovative technologies, greenhouse farming could reshape the province's agri-food system into a resilient, low-carbon model tailored for the northern context. These findings position NL as a notable example of CEA development under extreme structural constraints, aligning with established case study approaches in sustainability and regional development research. Recommendations include piloting hybrid renewable waste heat systems, implementing targeted policy incentives, and developing locally grounded techno-economic models to manage costs and employment potential.

1 Introduction

Greenhouse farming is a Controlled-Environment Agriculture (CEA) technique that has become an increasingly vital part of modern agriculture, providing various benefits that support global environmental, economic, and social goals. CEA refers to systems that protect crops from external weather conditions and enable precise regulation of the growing environment, ensuring consistent, high-quality, and more stable year-round production. Greenhouse horticulture, as an intensive farming method, maximizes productivity through climate control, efficient use of resources such as water and fertilizer, and the integration of advanced technologies such as hydroponics and automation (Koukounaras, 2020). Unlike traditional open-field farming, which depends on limited arable land, contributes to food waste, and involves long-distance transportation that raises Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGE), CEA enhances sustainability by reducing environmental impact and improving food distribution efficiency (Vatistas et al., 2022).

Despite high initial, running and maintenance costs, and management challenges (pest, disease, irrigation), hydroponics enable year-round production, higher and more predictable yields, efficient input use (e.g., water efficiency at 90%), reduced pesticide usage, and increased environmental benefits like reduced pollution (Khan, 2018). Globally, the greenhouse horticulture market value has risen to $33.4 billion in 2024 and is projected to reach $69.73 billion by 2033 [IMARC Group, (2024)] with an anticipated annual growth rate of 9%. This growth is fueled by population increases, water scarcity and climate change (Koukounaras, 2020, p. 1). Hydroponics—derived from the Greek words “hydro” (water) and “ponos” (labor)—is a soil-less cultivation method that utilizes nutrient-rich solutions and has a long history, dating back to Francis Bacon's 1627 work, further developed over the years (Khan, 2018) and today, 115 countries practice commercial greenhouse production, covering approximately 623,302 hectares globally (FAO, 2005; Hickman, 2011, in Khan, 2018).

In Canada, the greenhouse farming industry is concentrated in Ontario, representing 71% of national greenhouse production (Dyer et al., 2011). Leamington is nicknamed the Greenhouse Capital of North America because over half of Canada's and 80% of Ontario's greenhouse production occurs here, with BC (14%), Quebec (8%), and other provinces accounting for the remaining 7%.

Canada, as a northern country with cold climates, relies heavily on its greenhouse industry, which plays a significant role in the national economy. In 2020, the sector generated 1.8 billion CAD in farm gate sales and 1.4 billion CAD in exports (Asgari et al., 2023, p. 1). By 2021, the greenhouse vegetable sector had become the largest and fastest-growing segment of Canadian horticulture, contributing 2.7 billion CAD in farm-gate sales and approximately $1.7 billion in exports (Agriculture and Afri-Food Canada, 2024a). The expansion of this industry has opened the door to improving the domestic food supply through crop diversification, technological innovation, and the extension of greenhouse operations into urban and remote regions. The U.S.A. is Canada's primary trade partner, receiving over 99% of exports (Agriculture and Afri-Food Canada, 2024a, p. 4).

Despite this growth, regional disparities are evident. The Atlantic provinces of Prince Edward Island (PEI), Nova Scotia (NS), New Brunswick (NB), and Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) consistently rank lowest across several performance indicators (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2024b). In 2021, these provinces collectively contributed just 119,996 m² (0.5%) of Canada's total harvested greenhouse area (19,458,956 m²), with NL accruing the least at 6,075 m². NL also recorded the lowest production volume, at only 42 Mg in 2021, and has consistently ranked at the bottom in terms of farm-gate value from 2017 to 2021 (Agriculture and Afri-Food Canada, 2024a).

Despite its potential, the expansion of greenhouse farming faces several challenges, including climate change, inefficient management of high-input systems, and significant financial barriers related to startup costs, operating costs, maintenance, and energy use (Koukounaras, 2020). Heating remains the largest energy demand in greenhouse farming, primarily supplied by natural gas boilers, which account for approximately 70–80% of the total energy consumption (Heravi, 2013; Parker and Kiessling, 2016). Furthermore, limited natural light during the winter restricts production, and the use of supplementary lighting is often economically unviable. Continued reliance on fossil fuels to expand greenhouse gas emissions undermines Canada's GHG mitigation goals and long-term sustainability (Dyer et al., 2011). While numerous studies have explored the efficiency and environmental impacts of CEA, particularly greenhouses and vertical farms, both globally (Vatistas et al., 2022, which reviewed 165 publications from 2006 to 2022), and across various Canadian regions (Proksch and Ianchenko, 2023), including Ontario (Dias et al., 2017), the Prairies (Ahamed et al., 2019a,b), Quebec (Proksch and Ianchenko, 2023), and Nunavik (Lamalice et al., 2018), limited attention has been given to NL in this context.

NL consistently ranks lowest in greenhouse production and market value, a situation worsened by a short growing season, harsh winters, poor soils for open-field farming, and the ongoing impacts of climate change. These issues are compounded by declining farm numbers, aging farmer populations, high reliance on food imports, and persistent food insecurity (Statistics Canada, 2017; Statistics Canada, Government of Canada, 2017; Catto, 2010; Food First NL, 2022; Javed, 2021; Uppal, 2023). Despite these significant barriers, vegetable and melon farming remains a dominant sector of NL's agriculture, accounting for 23.5% of all farms in 2021. Greenhouse, nursery, and floriculture operations followed, representing 16.3% of farms and indicating a degree of sectoral resilience and potential for strategic growth under the right conditions (Government of Canada, Statistics Canada, 2022).

Additional demographic challenges arise in the agricultural sector in NL. In 2021, the province's average farm operator age increased to 57.5 years, up from 55.8 in 2016, surpassing the national average of 56.0. Nearly two-thirds (65.6%) of operators were aged 55 and older, up from 58.2% in 2016 and notably higher than the national figure of 60.5%. In contrast, younger operators under 35 years old comprised just 3.3% of NL's farming population, well below the national average of 8.6% (Statistics Canada, 2022). While concerning, this context also presents opportunities and incentives to revitalize agriculture in the province, particularly through investment in greenhouse farming.

Between 2019 and 2023, Canada's greenhouse sector expanded substantially in terms of cultivated area, with Ontario and Quebec driving growth. Production rose from 660,000 Mg to over 800,000 Mg, again, concentrated in these two provinces (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2024b). In stark contrast, NL's greenhouse area fell from 5,340 m² to 4,191 m²—an average annual decline of nearly 6%—while output fell from 28 Mg to 10 Mg, representing an approximate 23% annual decrease (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2024b). This steady decline highlights NL's marginal role within the national greenhouse sector and positions it as a critical case for studying constrained, rather than expanding, CEA. The divergence between national growth and local contraction highlights NL's marginal position and reinforces its analytical value as a case study of CEA development under persistent structural constraints.

As a northern, islanded economy with high import dependence and severe climate constraints (short growing season and harsh winters), NL ranks among the lowest provinces in greenhouse production and value. Its selection as a case study is therefore justified by the small scale of its greenhouse sector, its heightened vulnerability to import risks, the presence of the CBPPL pilot initiative, and the documented decline in harvested area, production, and farm-gate value—all of which serve as key indicators of structural constraints.

1.1 The context: utilizing Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited (CBPPL) by-products for greenhouse farming in NL

The Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited (CBPPL) Greenhouse Pilot Project, part of the Center for Research and Innovation (CRI) in Corner Brook, Newfoundland, is a collaborative initiative involving Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited (CBPPL), College of the North Atlantic (CNA), Grenfell Campus Memorial University (GC-MUN), and government and community partners. The project explores the feasibility of using CBPPL's industrial by-products, specifically waste heat and steam, to power a greenhouse, building on previous district energy feasibility studies. It aligns with broader regional goals of revitalizing the pulp and paper industry, enhancing food security, and mitigating environmental impacts (Bayramov, 2021). The project's dual objectives are: (1) to create a space for applied research in sustainable industrial practices and clean technology, and (2) to produce high-value, fresh vegetables year-round for the local community by utilizing industrial waste energy. Anticipated benefits include reduced carbon emissions, economic opportunities, lower waste disposal costs, and improved access to healthy food. Although the project received government funding and technical support, it remains in the development phase, with plans for a larger facility near CBPPL yet to be realized [(Memeorial University of Newfoundland, 2025)]. As a result, the study draws on comparable case studies from other jurisdictions (i.e., successful cases of similar projects: Serres Toundra in Quebec, Canada, and WA3RM's Frövi in Sweden) to inform its analysis and recommendations. It also investigates the energy-related challenges facing the greenhouse sector in NL and evaluates the potential of alternative and renewable energy sources available in the province. The overarching question guiding this analysis is: How can expanding CEA, particularly greenhouse farming, contribute to improved local food production, reduced GHG emissions, and broader sustainability outcomes for NL?

2 Methodology

2.1 Data sources and collection

A qualitative case study approach was employed in this research, with qualitative perspectives used for data collection and analysis. This approach was chosen to explore the subtle complexities of greenhouse farming contributions and to amplify participants' voices (Ashworth, 2015). Qualitative methods facilitate comprehensive analysis by capturing intricate nuances in social settings (Smith and Chudleigh, 2015). Data collection involved a combination of semi-structured interviews, academic and gray literature reviews, and insights from various research studies. Interviews were conducted with key stakeholders, including individuals from academia, industry, government, farming and indigenous communities. Semi-structured interviews were selected for their ability to elicit detailed insights while providing a comfortable, conversational setting that does not compromise data quality (Boyce and Neale, 2006). These interviews were guided by a flexible set of predetermined questions, allowing room for clarification and deeper probing as needed (Holloway and Wheeler, 2010).

The research was conducted in NL, Canada, in collaboration with academic and non-academic partners to explore the feasibility of year-round production of high-value crops in commercial greenhouse farming using waste byproducts from CBPPL. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Grenfell Campus Research Ethics Board (GC-REB) in January 2023, ensuring compliance with the Tri-Council Guidelines. The approved ethics submission included a participant recruitment form, a semi-structured interview guide (developed by the PI and reviewed by supervisors), and informed consent forms. The interview guide, was structured into five main sections: (1) Climate change, food security, and innovative agriculture; (2) Potential for by-products utilization; (3) Role of CEA (greenhouse farming) in food production, carbon footprint, and other factors; (4) Policy determinants and implications; and (5) Challenges and opportunities in by-product utilization and commercialization. This study focuses on findings from section three, examining the contributions of greenhouse agriculture in NL. A total of 21 expert/key informant interviews were conducted between March and June in 2023; 20 were included in the analysis (one was excluded due to technical recording issues), with a detailed breakdown of the interviewees and numbers in Table 1 below.

While there was a relatively even distribution of respondents across the categories, the indigenous group had only two participants, mainly due to (un)availability. Throughout the rest of the paper, RP refers to Research Participant.

Interviews were conducted either virtually via Webex or in person, lasting 30–60 min. The study targeted individuals with expertise in agricultural innovation, greenhouse farming, and policy. Participants were recruited through two primary methods: (a) active recruitment, in which the PI directly invited individuals from academia and industry, and (b) passive recruitment, in which an open invitation was issued, encouraging interested individuals from Grenfell Campus, students, postdocs, and staff. Most participants were recruited through active calls.

The primary sampling technique was purposive expert sampling, as described by Onwuegbuzie and Collins (2007). This method involves selecting participants with knowledge and expertise in the studied subject matter relevant to the research focus. Expert sampling, a subset of purposive sampling, was used to ensure participants had demonstrable authority in greenhouse agriculture and related fields (Kumar, 2014). A list of experts across various participant categories was compiled by reviewing organizational websites, leveraging supervisors' knowledge of the study context, examining participation in previous similar studies, and conducting internet searches of farms, governmental agriculture departments, food security organizations, researchers studying food security, and people operating greenhouses or working as farmers/producers in the province. The aim was to capture a broad spectrum of perspectives to enrich the study's findings.

2.2 Data processing and analysis

All data underwent systematic processing, including editing, organizing, and interpreting. Interviews were digitally recorded, securely stored, and transcribed for analysis. A qualitative content analysis approach, supported by NVivo software (Version 14) and Microsoft Excel, was employed to interpret the data. Elo et al. (2014) and Hsieh and Shannon (2005) describe content analysis as a method for preparing, organizing, and reporting qualitative research findings. In this study, NVivo software was used to code interview transcripts and researcher notes, enabling data categorization and the identification of emerging patterns and themes relevant to the research questions. These themes were then grouped into broader categories to inform the presentation of results and subsequent discussion.

3 Results and discussion

The results are presented based on the five main contributions identified: (1) Conditional environmental gains through renewable or waste-heat powered greenhouses; (2) Food-security improvements from extended-season production and import substitution; (3) Economic opportunities and constraints, including job creation and export niches; (4) Resource-efficiency and circular-economy pathways anchored to multiple waste streams; (5) Technical and policy barriers (especially energy costs and intermittency). Table 2 below summarizes expert opinions by contribution and highlights the main factors, consensus, and key divergences.

These are further elaborated in the sub-sections below.

3.1 Contribution of greenhouse farming to greenhouse gas emissions/carbon footprint (environmental)

Figure 1 illustrates the potential contribution of greenhouse farming to NL's carbon footprints perceived by respondents. A clear majority−15 of 20 experts (75%)- expressed conditional support for greenhouse farming as a GHG mitigation strategy. Importantly, this support was rarely unconditional. Rather than viewing greenhouse farming as inherently low-carbon, respondents emphasized that its environmental value depends on system design, energy sources, and scale. This pattern suggests broad alignment around potential, coupled with caution about implementation.

Figure 1

As RP_14 notes, “Increasing greenhouse farming will help reduce the carbon footprint substantially in the province. Working with CBBPL could open doors for the ability to capture carbon dioxide from the flue gas, which is said to enhance the carbon dioxide PPM inside the greenhouse, which could further improve your productivity and every aspect environmentally”. Additional benefits include reduced reliance on fossil fuels and the elimination of long-haul food transportation.

This method drastically reduces CO₂ emissions by decreasing fuel consumption. The savings will be substantial, with carbon prices expected to rise from $65 to $170 per ton by 2030. Eliminating long-haul shipping- which is the primary way our food arrives here, such as lettuce, tomatoes, and other items transported across the country - results in fewer emissions and lower costs, thereby making a significant climate impact by minimizing fuel use (RPs 3, 12, and 21).

Dyer et al. (2011) found that while Canadian vegetable greenhouses emitted 0.35 Tg of fossil CO₂, double the emissions from trucking produce from the southern U.S., this was still half the emissions of air freight. However, the study's omission of marine and rail transport, and its assumption of natural gas heating, limit its applicability, though it supports respondents' views that the energy source is critical.

Across interviews, four interrelated conditions consistently shaped expert assessments. (1) Energy source: Heating method determines whether greenhouse farming reduces or increases GHGE. Fossil-fuel heating (diesel or natural gas), can negate climate benefits, while renewable or waste heat sources can substantially reduce emissions (RP_7, RP_8). (2) Costs: High capital and operating expenses, particularly winter fuel consumption (e.g., 800 L every 2–3 days, – RP_16), constrain the viability of low-carbon systems. Opportunities exist in CO₂, which can enhance plant growth and production efficiency (RP_10, RP_2). (3) Comparative baselines: Emissions outcomes depend on whether greenhouse farming displaces long-haul trucking, air freight, or conventional field agriculture. (4) Scale of production: Small, isolated greenhouse projects are unlikely to deliver meaningful emission reductions, especially if reliant on imported inputs that generate upstream emissions. Broad-scale deployment is necessary to achieve a significant impact. As RP_7 noted, “This has to be done on a really, really broad scale, with a lot of activity. If you're putting up one or two greenhouses in one location, you won't have much impact, either positive or negative. It really comes down to what you are using in there. If you're importing fertilizers and clearing land, that will result in new GHGE”.

Using existing energy infrastructure or zero-emission sources can significantly improve outcomes and benefit the environment. Evidence from other countries with similar climates supports this view. For instance, Marttila et al. (2021, p. 8) illustrated in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2

In Finland, tomato and cucumber production using biofuels and industrial waste heat proved the most climate-friendly, cutting emissions while improving resource efficiency and profitability through agro-industrial symbiosis (Marttila et al., 2021), carbon footprint and financial rewards in the Netherlands (Blom et al., 2022) and 83.3% and 95% GHGE reductions in Poland (Grabarczyk and Grabarczyk, 2022). These findings lend credence to the proposed diversion of waste heat and CO₂ from CBPPL into greenhouse farming in NL.

Despite the conditional factors noted above, several points of convergence emerged among respondents. Most agreed that reducing reliance on long-distance food transport could yield meaningful emissions savings in NL, particularly as carbon pricing increases over time. There was also broad agreement that greenhouse systems powered by renewable energy or industrial waste heat could outperform both conventional field agriculture (which accounted for 10% of Canada's 729 Mt GHGE, mainly methane (39%), nitrous oxide (36%), and carbon dioxide (26%), through livestock, fertilizer use, biomass combustion, manure, and soil disturbance - Fouli et al., 2021), and imported produce on a per-unit emissions basis. RP_9 noted that “large-scale greenhouse farming can reduce emissions and is generally less carbon-intensive per pound, though its impact depends heavily on the energy source used to power the system” (RP_9). Experts further converged on the view that greenhouse farming should not be seen as inherently low- or high-carbon, but rather as a flexible system whose environmental performance depends on energy integration, input choices, and system design. This consensus aligns with existing literature emphasizing energy source as the primary determinant of greenhouse emissions intensity. For instance, Vatistas et al. (2022) concluded that large-scale greenhouses and vertical farms powered by renewable energy could significantly decarbonize urban areas through integrated energy-food systems, as both systems employ soilless cultivation, saving 70–95% water compared to traditional farming.

At the same time, several divergences and tensions were evident. Disagreement centered on the feasibility and near-term realism of low-carbon greenhouse systems in NL. Some respondents viewed industrial symbiosis, carbon dioxide capture, and integrated energy–food systems as credible pathways to emissions reduction, while others were more skeptical, emphasizing cost barriers and implementation uncertainties. There was also debate over whether greenhouse farming should be prioritized over improving conventional agriculture, with some experts stressing that poorly designed greenhouse systems could shift rather than reduce emissions. Finally, respondents differed in their assessment of scale: some emphasized the need for regional aggregation, while others questioned whether NL's market size and infrastructure could ever support the level of activity required to generate net climate benefits.

3.2 Contribution of greenhouse farming to food security (social dimension)

Food security remains a critical global challenge, intensified by population growth, shrinking arable land, and trade disruptions as seen during COVID-19 (LaPlante et al., 2021). In Canada, the issue is especially acute in remote and northern communities such as NL, where food insecurity rates reached 23% in 2023, the highest nationally (Uppal, 2023). Greenhouse farming, despite challenges, emerges as a viable strategy for strengthening local food systems, particularly in challenging Northern environments (Skinner et al., 2014; Uppal, 2023). A common theme emerging from both literature and respondents' perspectives (as illustrated in Figure 3 below) is that greenhouse farming has the potential to transform local food security in NL through increased production, improved quality, import substitution, and year-round availability—each aligning with the four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization and stability (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, 2009).

Figure 3

A strong majority of respondents expressed support for greenhouse farming as a viable strategy for improving food security in NL, particularly when lessons from earlier failures are incorporated. Specifically, 7 experts (RPs 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, and 19) explicitly characterized the Sprung Greenhouse project as a failed initiative that nevertheless offers valuable guidance for future development rather than evidence of inherent technological infeasibility. Beyond this historical assessment, at least 8 respondents (RPs 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18, and 19) endorsed greenhouse farming as an effective means of extending the growing season, reducing import dependence, and improving food availability and access under NL's climatic constraints. Taken together, expert support was broad, though consistently framed as conditional on improved design, governance, and contextual fit.

The Sprung Greenhouse project near St. John's in the late 1980s failed largely due to a combination of factors, including poor planning, weak market research and size, and limited crop diversity, rather than technological flaws. Respondents (7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16 and 19) view it as a costly but instructive lesson for future greenhouse initiatives in Newfoundland and Labrador [Higgins, 2012]. RP_13, for instance, remarked, “I think it could improve our food security … but they didn't do the market research beforehand”. This distinction highlights a broader consensus that, with improved governance, planning, and diversified production, greenhouse agriculture can succeed where earlier attempts faltered.

3.2.1 Enhanced year-round production (availability and access), import reduction (stability and agency), quality and nutritional value (utilization)

Given NL's short growing season, greenhouse farming was widely recognized as a key strategy to increase food availability and access. Large-scale operations can extend the growing season to 7–8 months, reducing dependency on seasonal imports and increasing resilience (RPs 18 and 19). High-performance greenhouse systems worldwide achieve exceptional yields despite energy constraints, such as Finland's tomato and cucumber outputs (41–87 kg/m²) and large-scale operations like Lufa Farms in Quebec and Gotham Greens in New York (Marttila et al., 2021; LaPlante et al., 2021; Proksch and Ianchenko, 2023).

Respondents (7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17) agreed that greenhouse farming can overcome Newfoundland and Labrador's short growing season by extending production (availability), improving local food access (accessibility), and reducing dependence on imported produce (stability). They emphasized that expanding such systems—especially in areas like Labrador, where energy costs are lower—could strengthen food security, stabilize supply chains, and reduce emissions from long-distance transportation. For RP_17, “Greenhouses are common globally, so it's puzzling why we don't use them more here. They can extend growing seasons, enable earlier planting, and support full-season production, even if not year-round, making them a logical solution to increase local agricultural output in NL. Greenhouse farming improves food quality and nutrition by providing fresher, healthier produce with fewer preservatives, thereby enhancing public health and community well-being through consistent year-round access to locally grown, nutrient-rich foods (RP_10)., RP_12 observed that eliminating the ferry (the primary means of transporting food goods into the province) dependency “significantly reduces harvest-to-market time”, minimizing transportation-related spoilage.

Yet, greenhouse farming production has been declining in NL over the years as seen in Table 3 below.

Rates of Change in Greenhouse Vegetable Production (Table 3).

To calculate the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) for greenhouse vegetable production volume (Mg) from 2019 to 2023, we used the formula:

CAGR = ((BV/EV)^1/n − 1) × 100

where: EV = Ending value BV = Beginning value n = Number of years

Key results and interpretation (2019–2023 CAGR, % per year): Canada (overall): +5.0%, Ontario: +5.6%, Quebec: +11.0%, Manitoba: +17.0%, British Columbia: +0.4% and NL: −22.7%. National production increased steadily, rising from approximately 660,000 Mg in 2019 to over 800,000 Mg in 2023. This growth was concentrated in Ontario and Quebec, reflecting both scale effects and ongoing capital investment. NL stands out as an extreme outlier. Production fell from 28 Mg in 2019 to 10 Mg in 2023, corresponding to an average annual decline of nearly 23%. The sharp contraction after 2021 indicates not only limited expansion capacity but also vulnerability to operational shocks, cost pressures, and market instability.

This has implications for greenhouse development trajectories for NL. Two fundamentally different development trajectories can be deduced: (1) A consolidation and expansion pathway in central Canada, characterized by steady area growth, rising output, and increasing concentration of production, and (2) A stagnation and contraction pathway in NL, marked by declining area, sharply falling output, and increasing divergence from national trends. These contrasting trajectories support the manuscript's central argument that optimism surrounding CEA in NL exists alongside, and often in tension with, structural economic realities. The rate-of-change analysis strengthens this claim by demonstrating that NL's challenges are not merely a function of scale, but of sustained divergence from the dominant national growth pattern.

Respondents repeatedly emphasized that past and future outcomes hinge on several key conditions. First, planning and market alignment were identified as critical weaknesses in the Sprung Greenhouse project, particularly inadequate market research and limited crop diversity. Second, scale and location emerged as decisive factors, with larger operations viewed as more capable of sustaining extended production seasons and absorbing energy costs. The dynamics of year-round greenhouse production and produce availability in the province vary by location. With NL currently producing only 10% of its food traditionally, it relies heavily on imports from Ontario, Nova Scotia, and even Mexico (which are still produced in traditional ways). Third, energy infrastructure and regional variation were highlighted, especially the comparatively lower electricity costs in Labrador, which several respondents identified as offering a structural advantage for year-round or near-year-round production. Labrador's lower electricity costs are noted to “Give it a greenhouse advantage, offering even greater potential for year-round food production. Expanding such operations can improve local food access, reduce dependence on boats and transport trucks, and minimize emissions associated with long-distance food transportation and supply disruptions” (RP_17). Finally, supply chain vulnerability was cited as both a risk and an opportunity. Climate-induced disruptions, such as the winter storms and Hurricane Fiona, have shown how vulnerable island-based supply chains can be, with empty shelves (in stores like Dominion, Colemans) becoming a common occurrence within days (RP_8). While NL's reliance on imports exposes it to disruption, greenhouse farming was seen as beneficial only if it meaningfully reduces dependence on ferries, trucks, and long-distance transport.

Across interviews, several areas of consensus are evident. Respondents broadly agreed that greenhouse farming can significantly extend the growing season, in some cases to seven or eight months, thereby improving food availability and stabilizing supply. There was also strong agreement that locally produced greenhouse vegetables offer quality and nutritional advantages due to shorter harvest-to-market times and reduced reliance on preservatives. Experts further converged on the view that greenhouse farming is widely and successfully deployed in comparable cold-climate contexts, suggesting that NL's constraints are not climatic alone but institutional and infrastructural. Finally, respondents agreed that recent climate-related disruptions, including severe winter storms, underscore the fragility of NL's import-dependent food system and strengthen the case for increased local production.

Despite broad support and consensus, significant divergences and points of tension remain. Some respondents emphasized year-round greenhouse production as an attainable goal, particularly in Labrador, while others cautioned that year-round viability varies significantly by location and energy context. There was also divergence in how strongly experts linked greenhouse expansion to broader food security outcomes, with some viewing it as a central pillar and others as one component within a more diversified strategy. Finally, while the Sprung Greenhouse was widely interpreted as a failure of planning rather than technology, respondents differed in their assessment of how transferable lessons from that project are to current conditions, particularly given changes in energy systems, market expectations, and consumer demand. The gap between stakeholder optimism and economic realities is a core analytical tension that might help explain why private investment remains limited despite perceived opportunities, apparent policy and market interests. The central finding of persistent tension between stakeholder optimism and economic feasibility, rather than treating optimism as an unqualified indicator of opportunity.

While this study focused on NL, the findings align with national trends. Greenhouse farming, therefore, presents a potentially transformative solution to modern agricultural challenges by creating a controlled environment that supports year-round cultivation and optimizes crop production (Nasiri, 2024). Canada's greenhouse sector still faces barriers, including energy demands, labor shortages, and pathogens (LaPlante et al., 2021). Yet innovations such as the Canadian Integrated Northern Greenhouse (CING), which demonstrated 72% successful lettuce growth even in winter (Leroux and Lefsrud, 2021), offer templates for scaling up production in remote areas. Overall, the findings highlight optimism about the role of greenhouse farming in strengthening food security in NL. Respondents acknowledge past failures but emphasized lessons learned and future promise. When aligned with technological innovation and localized renewable energy systems, greenhouse farming can play a transformative role in ensuring year-round availability, access, quality, and stability of food, particularly in climate-sensitive and remote regions.

3.3 Other contributions of greenhouse farming (economic and non-economic)

Although the main research question focused on the contributions of greenhouse farming to environmental (carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions) and social (food security) dimensions, respondents also discussed other contributions, which are elaborated on and illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4

A smaller but clearly identifiable subset of respondents explicitly articulated additional contributions of greenhouse farming beyond environmental mitigation and food security. In particular, five experts (RPs 8, 9, 10, 13, and 19) discussed broader benefits, including economic opportunity, climate resilience, export potential, health outcomes, and regional competitiveness. While this group represents a minority of the full interview sample, their views were detailed and forward-looking, suggesting that these additional contributions are emerging themes rather than settled conclusions. Importantly, even among these respondents, support was framed as qualified and contingent, rather than categorical. These other contributions (namely, economic opportunities, climate resilience, export potential, health benefits, and competitive advantage) are not mutually exclusive, and some may overlap with the two main contributions discussed in sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 above.

To illustrate this point, RP_10 noted that expanding year-round local food production will enhance public health, lower shipping costs, and build a stronger, more sustainable community by reducing dependence on processed foods and improving access to fresh produce. It's evident that the food security elements of access, quality, utility, availability, and sustainability are all addressed in this assertion, along with the benefits of public health, reduced transportation costs and associated greenhouse gas emissions, and enhanced social cohesion and well-being. It must, however, be acknowledged that these assertions are optimistic assertions that might not all materialize and should be treated with some level of caution. For instance, although increased greenhouse farming could reduce shipping costs in the province, these savings might be offset by additional energy costs.

Across these interviews, several conditions were repeatedly emphasized as shaping whether such broader benefits could materialize. First, energy costs and infrastructure were identified as a central constraint, with potential savings from reduced transportation frequently described as vulnerable to being offset by high operating and heating costs. Second, scale and market integration were seen as decisive. Economic viability, job creation, and export potential depend on sufficiently large operations and reliable access to downstream markets. Third, regional specificity mattered greatly. Labrador's lower freight costs and logistical position relative to Quebec were repeatedly cited as creating opportunities that are not easily transferable to the island portion of the province. Labrador's unique economic conditions are fostering innovative greenhouse projects aimed at export markets. Unlike the rest of the island, Labrador benefits from cheap freight rates to Quebec; trucks arrive full from Montreal to Happy Valley-Goose Bay but return empty, creating an opportunity. Local “partners are developing large-scale greenhouses (including a 4–5-acre facility) to capitalize on this, leveraging the region's temperate summers. These could supply Quebec and other parts of Canada, a model less feasible elsewhere on the island due to differing logistical considerations” (RP_9). This export-focused approach reimagines Labrador's role in regional food production, transforming a logistical quirk into an agricultural opportunity while addressing supply chain inefficiencies in Newfoundland and Labrador.

Fourth, institutional and policy alignment emerged as a background condition, including access to industrial by-products such as waste heat and CO₂, regulatory facilitation, and coordinated investment. Finally, respondents stressed the importance of skills, labor availability, and technical capacity, particularly for more technologically intensive or semi-smart greenhouse systems.

As seen in Figure 4 above, other contributions of greenhouse farming were enumerated by respondents; these include economic (employment, job creation, investment, etc.) and non-economic benefits (health, climate resilience, community cohesion, etc.).

3.3.1 Economic contributions of greenhouse farming

The potential economic contribution of greenhouse farming encompasses employment and job creation, cost savings, local investment, a competitive advantage, and export potential through access to global markets. Greenhouse farming “boosts local employment, especially among young people who prefer it over fieldwork and supports sustainable agriculture, while reducing transportation costs and food miles” (RP_13), which currently impacts food economics in the province.

Even though we could not provide real-time job/employment numbers from the NL case study, bounding estimates using literature data from our two case studies in Serres Toundra, Quebec, Canada, and WA3RM's Frövi, Sweden, lend credence to the argument for job creation. Serres Toundra, a large greenhouse complex in Saint-Félicien, Quebec, Canada, offers valuable insights into the contribution of greenhouse farming (Arlette, 2016). Established in 2016 as an 8.5 ha project, the $38-million project has since expanded to 35 ha, producing over 45 million cucumbers annually and employing more than 500 people (Roy, 2017; Serres Toundra, 2024). The facility is now Quebec's largest cucumber producer, helping reduce the province's historic reliance on imports, which once supplied 95% of its cucumbers (Serres Toundra, 2024; LG2, 2024; Canada Newswire, 2016; Crawford Packaging, 2016). The model is directly relevant to NL, where CBPPL generates large volumes of waste heat and other by-products. Like Quebec, NL faces high heating costs, short growing seasons, and reliance on imported produce. Serres Toundra demonstrate that aligning industrial resources with greenhouse operations can reduce costs, improve food security, lower emissions and create employment opportunities.

In Frövi, Sweden, a company called WA3RM specializes in recycling low-grade waste heat for greenhouse farming. The low-grade waste heat recycling project in Frövi, in Lindesbergy Municipality, Orebro region of Sweden, reuses waste heat from a carton board factory to grow tomatoes in greenhouses on a 100,000 m² area. Production from the first greenhouse began in 2024 and produces 8,000 tons of tomato a year, creating 100 new jobs and reusing 30 Gwh of waste heat per year to increase domestic food production, reduce export dependency, avoid emissions through the utilization of residual heat instead of fossil fuels, creating new jobs for both individuals and communities and use less water (up to 90% lower in hydroponic greenhouses), (WA3RM, 2024a,b).

Canada is one of the northern countries with cold climates, and it has a thriving greenhouse industry that significantly contributes to the national economy, generating 1.8 billion CAD in farm gate sales and 1.4 billion CAD in exports in 2020 (Asgari et al., 2023). Expanding greenhouse production to include ethnocultural vegetables such as okra and long beans aligns well with Canada's multicultural demographics, particularly in markets like the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), where demand is estimated at approximately 732 M CAD annually (LaPlante et al., 2021). This presents a timely opportunity for NL to tap into greenhouse production, bridging its agricultural potential with immigration-driven market needs and broader equity and diversity priorities. Low-cost hydroponic systems such as the Kratky method and semi-smart greenhouses have shown strong profitability and sustainability (such as an internal rate of return of 12.75%, payback periods of months and 6.5years), offering efficient, energy-saving options for small-scale agribusiness (Gumisiriza et al., 2022; Arabkoohsar at al., 2014; Harniati et al., 2023).

The assertions regarding the economic contributions of greenhouse farming are well-supported but merit a critical examination to assess their validity and practical implications in NL. Even though greenhouse farming boosts employment, especially for young people, because of its technological appeal compared to conventional field farming, this assertion should be contextualized within regional labor availability, skill levels, and whether wages and working conditions in greenhouses meet expectations. The reference to cost savings through reduced transportation and food miles is economically sound, particularly in isolated regions like NL, where import dependency inflates food prices. Yet, such benefits depend heavily on the scale of greenhouse production and supply chain integration. The Labrador-specific opportunity arising from reverse freight logistics to Quebec and mainland Canada illustrates a smart adaptation to regional dynamics, converting logistical inefficiencies into a competitive agricultural advantage. This strategy aligns with the agro-innovation system (AIS) concept, suggesting that localized innovation and niche market targeting can overcome structural barriers. Nevertheless, success hinges on coordinated investments, proximity to industrial by-products (such as CO₂, waste heat, etc.) and regulatory facilitation. The Marttila et al. (2021) data on financial returns and CO₂ enrichment support this, but also highlight long payback periods and technical dependencies (something that one respondent alluded to), which could deter private investors.

Nationally, Canada's greenhouse sector is economically significant, generating CAD 3.2 billion in combined farm gate sales and exports in 2020 and CAD 6.7 billion in 2024 (Government of Canada, 2025). The opportunity to diversify into ethnocultural vegetables is timely, particularly in multicultural hubs like the GTA. However, realizing this potential in NL would require overcoming local market scale limitations, limited agri-technical capacity, and gaps in cultural food systems integration. Low-cost production systems, such as the Kratky method and semi-smart greenhouses, offer promising returns and energy independence, with scalable models for smallholder- or community-led greenhouses. These systems are particularly valuable in regions with unreliable power infrastructure or high energy costs, such as rural, remote or northern communities. Still, their profitability and sustainability vary significantly depending on user skills, access to inputs, and enabling policy environments. Overall, greenhouse farming offers substantial economic potential, especially when tailored to local contexts and logistical constraints. To fully realize this potential, greenhouse initiatives must address regional constraints, align with local demographics, and prioritize economically viable, environmentally sustainable practices.

Despite varied emphases, several areas of convergence are evident. Respondents broadly agreed that greenhouse farming can generate local employment, particularly among younger workers drawn to technologically mediated agriculture. There was also consensus that reducing food miles offers economic and environmental advantages in a highly import-dependent province, provided production volumes are sufficient to displace imports. Experts further converged on the view that niche strategies, such as export-oriented production from Labrador or cultivation of ethnocultural vegetables for external markets, represent more realistic economic pathways than attempting to replicate large-scale central Canadian greenhouse models. Finally, there was general agreement that lower-cost production systems, including hydroponic and semi-smart greenhouse models, offer promising entry points for small-scale or community-led initiatives, especially in rural or energy-constrained settings.

Divergence and points of tension emerged around the realism and timing of these broader economic contributions. Some respondents emphasized greenhouse farming's potential to transform regional economies and create competitive advantages, while others cautioned that many benefits remain aspirational and highly sensitive to cost structures. There was also tension between national-level success narratives and local applicability, with concerns that NL lacks the market scale, agri-technical depth, and cultural food system integration needed to capture opportunities observed elsewhere in Canada. Payback periods and technical dependencies associated with advanced systems were viewed by some as manageable and by others as deterrents to private investment. Finally, while low-cost systems were widely viewed as promising, respondents differed in their assessments of their scalability, robustness, and dependence on user skills and enabling policy environments.

3.3.2 Contribution to resource use efficiency (RUE), circular economy, and technological innovation

A clear majority of respondents expressed support for greenhouse farming as a means of improving resource-use efficiency (RUE) and advancing circular-economy principles, particularly through technological innovation. At least five experts explicitly (including RP_10 and others referenced indirectly through discussion of technology-enabled systems) articulated that greenhouse systems, when properly designed, can substantially improve water, energy, and nutrient efficiency relative to conventional agriculture. While not all respondents commented directly on specific technologies, those who did consistently viewed technological integration as central to sustainable CEA in cold-climate contexts such as NL.

Greenhouse farming enhances RUE by optimizing water, energy, and nutrient inputs per unit of biomass produced, a central principle of sustainable Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) (Koukounaras, 2020). Greenhouse farming applies advanced technologies that improve efficiency and sustainability by reducing energy, water, and nutrient use. Half-sunken greenhouses lower heating costs in colder climates (RP_10), while IoT integration, automation, and renewable systems enhance productivity (Vatistas et al., 2022, p. 21). Innovations such as LED lighting, AI-controlled irrigation, biochar use, hydroponics, and CO₂ enrichment increase yields and reduce inputs (Savvas et al., 2023; Bergstrand, 2010). Energy-efficient solutions, including heat pumps and waste heat recovery, are particularly effective in cold regions (Castillo-Díaz et al., 2021; Asgari et al., 2023).

Examples from Canada and beyond, such as Lufa Farms in Montreal and Gotham Greens in New York, demonstrate the resource use efficiency benefits of these technologies, such as cutting total energy use and seasonal CO₂ emissions by 35.8%, saving 16,000 kg CO₂e or $800 in tax, and improved energy efficiency (up to 50%) and saving up to $400,000 annually (Nauta et al., 2023; Proksch and Ianchenko, 2023). Machine learning applications further optimize control and resource management (Guo et al., 2021; Behroozeh et al., 2024; Moons et al., 2022). Technologies like Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage/Utilization (BECCS/U/U) and AI-integrated greenhouses enhance yields by 13.8% while reducing water use by 28%, achieving production costs as low as $0.35/kg and generating negative emissions (−24.6 kg CO₂/m²/year) and promoting circularity in production systems (Ghiat et al., 2021; Karanisa et al., 2022; Sayadi-Gmada et al., 2019).

Despite their substantial economic impact (2.7% GDP, 4.7% of exports), these systems still rely on largely linear models, highlighting the need for policy-driven shifts toward renewable growth media and emission reductions to meet circularity targets by 2030–2050 (Van Tuyll et al., 2022). Collectively, these examples underscore how greenhouse farming enhances WEF Nexus integration by improving food security, optimizing resource-use efficiency, and embedding circular-economy approaches. However, geographic, technological, and policy-related barriers must be addressed to enable sustainable scaling. The insights presented in this study align closely with our proposed theoretical and conceptual framework, the Circular Innovative Systems Transdisciplinary (CIST) framework, and the integrated framework for climate change, food security, agricultural innovation and by-products utilization in NL through the WEF Nexus, as well as the sustainability triad (environment, economic and social), which will continue to guide the analysis subsequent sections on greenhouse energy issues in NL.

Across expert accounts and supporting evidence, several points of convergence are evident. Respondents broadly agreed that greenhouse farming enables substantial gains in RUE by decoupling biomass production from proportional increases in water, nutrient, and energy inputs. There was strong alignment around the role of technological innovation, including LED lighting, hydroponics, CO₂ enrichment, and AI-enabled management, in driving both productivity gains and emissions reductions. Experts also converged on the view that circular economy approaches, such as waste heat utilization and carbon capture or reuse, can transform greenhouses from resource-intensive systems into integrated components of regional energy–food–water (WEF) systems. These views align closely with the study's conceptual framing under the Circular Innovative Systems Transdisciplinary (CIST) framework and the WEF Nexus.

Despite broad support, significant divergences and points of tension remain. Some respondents and cited examples emphasize the transformative potential of high-tech and AI-integrated systems, including the possibility of negative emissions and very low production costs, while others implicitly caution that such outcomes depend on favorable geographic, institutional, and policy contexts. There is also tension between demonstrated performance in large, well-capitalized operations and the feasibility of transferring similar technologies to smaller or resource-constrained settings in NL. Finally, while circular economy integration is widely endorsed in principle, respondents differ in their assessment of how quickly policy frameworks, investment structures, and technical capacity can evolve to support widespread adoption in NL.

3.3.3 Synthesis of greenhouse farming's contribution to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and trade-offs

Across environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability, greenhouse farming demonstrates multi-Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) relevance, though its contributions are uneven and highly conditional. Taken together, the findings of this study (supported by literature and findings of previous studies) suggest that greenhouse systems most strongly advance SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), while presenting persistent trade-offs with SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) unless energy and material systems are reconfigured. Table 4 below summarizes the contribution of greenhouse farming to the SDGs and the associated trade-offs.

As arable land declines due to population growth and climate change, CEA offers a sustainable solution to global food demands (Benke and Tomkins, 2017). Analysts suggest that greenhouse systems optimize land use, enhance productivity, and reduce environmental impacts through year-round, pesticide-free production (Zhou et al., 2021). Economically, they lower input costs (e.g., fertilizers, transportation) and create skilled jobs, while socially, they improve food security and energy resilience (Benke and Tomkins, 2017).

Consistent with Benke and Tomkins (2017), greenhouse farming enhances land-use efficiency and enables year-round food production under climatic constraints, directly supporting SDG 2 by increasing food availability and stability. Empirical evidence from both the literature and expert interviews further indicates gains in food quality and nutritional value, reinforcing links to SDG 3 through reduced reliance on long-haul transport, shorter harvest-to-market times, and increased access to fresh produce. Water-use efficiency, particularly in hydroponic and closed-loop systems, aligns greenhouse farming with SDG 6, corroborating findings from high-tech greenhouse studies in Europe and North America.

There are synergies and trade-offs with the SDGs and greenhouse farming (Maureira et al., 2022). Comparative studies highlight essential distinctions in how different greenhouse typologies interact with the SDGs. High-tech systems, such as those in the Netherlands, outperform low-tech systems in terms of yield, nutrient efficiency, and water conservation, thereby aligning more closely with SDGs 2, 3, 6, and 14 (Life Below Water) by reducing agricultural runoff and land-use conversion pressures (Zhou et al., 2021). However, these gains often come at the expense of SDG 7 and SDG 12 due to high energy demand and material inputs, including plastics and fossil-fuel-based heating. Similarly, Maureira et al. (2022) show that high-tech greenhouses can achieve yield intensification (6.4 × higher yields) but require orders of magnitude more energy (231 × more energy) than open fields than open-field systems, amplifying greenhouse gas emissions (emit 18 × more GHGs) where energy remains carbon-intensive.

Findings from this study align with this broader literature while extending it to a cold-region, energy-constrained context. In NL, experts consistently emphasized that the sustainability performance of greenhouse systems hinges on energy source, scale, and integration with regional infrastructure. Where fossil fuels dominate heating, greenhouse farming risks undermining SDG 7 and exacerbating emissions. In Ontario, fossil-fuel heating accounts for most emissions, up to 75% per kilogram of tomatoes, but transitioning to willow biomass could reduce emissions by 72–78%, while industrial symbiosis and waste-heat recovery provide added mitigation (Dias et al., 2017). Conversely, pathways involving renewable energy, waste-heat recovery, industrial symbiosis, and circular input reuse show potential to reconcile these trade-offs, echoing evidence from Ontario and elsewhere that biomass, waste heat, and closed-loop systems can reduce emissions by over 70 percent (Dias et al., 2017).

Overall, greenhouse farming should not be treated as an inherently sustainable intervention but as a conditional SDG enabler. Its strongest contributions occur where production intensity is matched with low-carbon energy, efficient resource use, and circular material flows. Without these conditions, gains in food security and economic activity may be offset by energy and material inefficiencies, reinforcing the importance of system design and policy alignment in determining net SDG outcomes.

3.4 Energy issues for commercial greenhouse farming

Locally and internationally, one of the key issues facing commercial greenhouse farming is energy demands and costs. Other operational costs, such as labor, materials, humidity control, and marketing, also differ by crop (Ahamed et al., 2019b). Greenhouses are energy (peaking at 1000 MJ/m-² in winter) and emission-intensive (Huang and Bi, 2006), especially in colder climates (Marttila et al., 2021), consuming significant amounts of their energy (65–85%) for heating and cooling, primarily from fossil fuels (diesel, coal, and natural gas), which drive high CO₂ emissions (Vatistas et al., 2022). In a study assessing the heating demands and economic feasibility for year-round tomato, cucumber, and pepper cultivation in a 0.6-hectare conceptual greenhouse using the GREENHEAT simulation model in Canada's Prairie region, annual heating requirements ranged from 1,486 to 1,754 MJ/m-² depending on crop type, greenhouse structure, and location, influenced by temperature, lighting, CO₂ levels, and evapotranspiration and season (Ahamed et al., 2019b). Their analysis showed net returns of CAD 69.2/m² for tomatoes, CAD 41.5/m² for cucumbers, and CAD 43.8/m² for peppers and yields of 55.0 kg/m², 65.0 kg/m², and 23.0 kg/m², respectively. Net present values were CAD 1.9M, C$1.2M, and CAD 1.1M, respectively, with benefit-cost ratios above 1.2, confirming year-round greenhouse production is economically viable in northern communities, but the harsh winters make them energy-inefficient and less profitable, especially from November to March (Ahamed et al., 2019b).

A substantial majority of respondents supported transitioning greenhouse heating systems in Newfoundland and Labrador to renewable energy sources. Specifically, 15 out of 20 experts, or 75% (RPs 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, and 21) identified renewable energy as essential for reducing greenhouse gas operating costs and emissions. These respondents viewed renewable integration not as an optional enhancement but as a necessary condition for the long-term sustainability of greenhouse farming in the province. Support was especially pronounced for hybrid and integrated systems rather than single-source solutions. Transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs), which reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Beijing's heating by 41.9–44.6% compared to gas and coal, can significantly reduce the energy demands of greenhouses and enhance sustainability. Wind turbines and biomass boilers (using almond shells or wood pellets) provide heat and CO₂ enrichment, reducing fossil fuel dependence, maintaining productivity, and lowering greenhouse gas emissions (Vatistas et al., 2022). In NL, RP_9 noted that.

Our team is developing an underground greenhouse that uses geothermal heat, light tunnels, and bioenergy conversion to maintain stable temperatures and year-round productivity. This system cuts energy costs by 60%, enhances crop safety, and demonstrates sustainable, closed-loop food production suited for harsh climates (RP_10).

Despite broad support, experts consistently emphasized that renewable energy adoption is conditional on several interrelated factors. First, technological feasibility and system integration were central. Respondents highlighted the need to integrate multiple renewable sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and hydro, to address supply variability and seasonal demand fluctuations. Second, infrastructure and capital costs emerged as a major constraint. High upfront investment requirements, grid upgrades, and maintenance costs were frequently cited as barriers, particularly for small-scale or remote operations. Third, energy storage and intermittency were identified as persistent challenges, with wind and solar variability requiring storage solutions that are currently expensive or technologically limited. Fourth, policy and regulatory frameworks were seen as both enabling and constraining factors, including the continued tax exemption for diesel in off-grid systems and the uneven application of emissions-reduction mandates. Finally, geographic and regional context mattered, with respondents stressing that island and remote communities require tailored, location-specific solutions rather than standardized models.

Most greenhouses worldwide rely heavily on fossil fuels for heating (Dyer et al., 2011), which primarily contributes to the environmental impact of greenhouse produce (Marttila et al., 2021). In NL, the situation isn't different. Several areas of consensus are evident across interviews. Respondents broadly agreed that fossil fuel dependence, particularly for greenhouse heating, represents the single largest source of emissions in controlled-environment agriculture in NL. There was strong alignment around the province's comparative advantage in renewable electricity, especially hydro and wind, and its potential to leverage these resources to decarbonize greenhouse operations. The greenhouse industry in NL “faces a major climate challenge: 100% reliance on fossil fuels. The mill here could help by building facilities that reduce this dependence. Even small-scale farmers (like me, with just 10,000 sq ft) recognize that solving energy issues requires innovation—no single solution will work” (RP_15). Experts also converged on the view that hybrid renewable systems offer the most realistic pathway forward, combining wind and solar with geothermal, biomass, or waste heat to stabilize supply and reduce emissions. In addition, respondents agreed that integrating renewable energy into greenhouse systems can yield multiple co-benefits, including lower long-term operating costs, improved energy security, and alignment with provincial climate and economic development objectives. Hence, harnessing the province's renewable energy sources (RES) can help address the heating demands and costs of commercial greenhouses.

3.4.1 Renewable energy sources (RES) in NL

Global renewable energy capacity is expanding rapidly, with China (895 GW), the U.S. (292 GW), and Canada (101 GW) leading in installed capacity (Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Department of Industry, Energy and Technology, 2021). Canada derives 16% of its energy from renewables, primarily hydro (68%), biomass (23%), and wind (5%), ranking third globally in hydro production. Wind capacity is projected to grow from 8,517 MW (3% of demand) in 2014 to 55,000 MW (20%) by 2025 (Meghdadi, 2015). In Newfoundland and Labrador (NL), 8.7% of farms produced renewable energy in 2021, predominantly solar (5.5%), which is below Canada's 11.9% average (Government of Canada, Statistics Canada, 2022). Seventy-five (75%) of respondents 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, and 20 identified geothermal, solar, wind, hydro, hydrogen, and biomass as key renewable sources, as illustrated in Figure 6 above, aligning with provincial assessments. NL already generates 80% of its electricity from renewable sources, expected to reach 98% post-Muskrat Falls, supported by wind, hydro-solar-battery projects, and biogas pilots (Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Department of Industry, Energy and Technology, 2021).

The province's renewable energy strategy emphasizes affordability, emissions reduction, Indigenous engagement, and job creation, with future priorities including green hydrogen, ammonia, and regulatory reforms. Despite progress, off-grid diesel remains tax-exempt, while large facilities face GHG reduction mandates (Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Department of Industry, Energy and Technology, 2021). According to RP_8, “Hydrogen offers a low-carbon fuel alternative for hydroponic greenhouses, reducing emissions, and its use in producing ammonia-based fertilizers could further decarbonize agriculture by replacing conventional carbon-intensive production methods in NL (RP_8). However, the battery/hydrogen storage cost ranges are real challenges, and CBPPL remains a pilot at this point and should not be the sole pillar for circularity arguments.

Some of these RES are already being harnessed in NL for greenhouse farming (RP_10). A facility in St. John's, for instance, uses solar energy, biofuel and food waste to produce roughly 20 min of methane gas per day (RP_13); ultimately, a mix of renewables (wind, biomass, geothermal) may be necessary, supported by funding and policy frameworks to offset upfront expenses. However, technical and logistical challenges—such as inconsistent wind supply or storage limitations—highlight the need for adaptable, region-specific strategies to make sustainable greenhouse operations feasible in the long term (RP_6). This is corroborated by (Meghdadi, 2015), who concluded that hybrid wind-solar systems are ideal for Newfoundland, leveraging winter winds and summer sun. Wind farms are particularly viable due to the province's exceptional wind resources, clean energy production, and economic benefits like job creation. However, wind power's unpredictability requires balancing generation with demand, as Newfoundland's 20 distributed wind plants show (Meghdadi, 2015).

Key Insights on RES in NL:

• Strengths: Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) has strong hydro, wind, and geothermal potential, with projects such as methane digesters and Muskrat Falls demonstrating the feasibility of renewable energy.

• Renewable Electricity: Hydroelectric power currently supplies about 80% of NL's electricity, and ongoing expansions will make the grid nearly emission-free (≈98%).

• Emerging Sources: Wind and geothermal energy are key growth areas, with wind seen as the most scalable for rural and coastal applications.

• Circular Integration: Biomass and bioenergy, including methane digesters and wood waste, support circular economy goals when linked to food and agricultural systems.

• Innovation: Underground greenhouses using geothermal insulation and bioenergy integration (RP_10) illustrate sustainable solutions for cold climates.

Although there was broad agreement on the importance of renewable energy, respondents emphasized different views on implementation pathways and practical feasibility. Some highlighted near-term opportunities, pointing to pilot projects and emerging technologies that already demonstrate substantial cost and emissions reductions. Others adopted a more cautious stance, underscoring unresolved challenges related to energy storage, grid capacity, and technical complexity, particularly in remote regions.

Respondents also disagreed on the potential of specific energy sources. Wind and geothermal energy received widespread support, whereas options on hydrogen were mixed. Some respondents highlighted its potential role in decarbonization, while others noted concerns about inefficiencies and the lack of supporting infrastructure. Finally, assessment of environmental trade-offs varied, including differing perspectives on land-use requirements and biodiversity impacts associated with large-scale renewable developments. Together, these differences highlight the importance of phased, region-specific strategies supported by robust energy modeling and coordinated policy frameworks, rather than reliance on a single technological solution.

Harnessing these renewable energy resources in the provinces will not be easy because adopting alternative energy sources such as solar, thermal, geothermal, and biogas entails significant investment risk, making the decision-making process complex (Araghi and Dijkema, 2015).

3.4.2 Challenges in harnessing RES in NL

Figure 5 above provides an overview of the primary challenges in harnessing renewable energy sources in NL. Respondents identified four main challenges: (1) Intermittency (weather dependence, variability and seasonal changes), (2) High infrastructure and investment costs (high initial investment needs/capital, maintenance expenses like grid upgrades), (3) Environmental trade-offs (land use impact, wildlife impact and Biodiversity loss), and (4) Energy storage limitations (lack of storage facilities, high storage costs and current technology limitations). Wind and solar power have spatial, cost, and environmental trade-offs, while rainwater harvesting offers practical benefits. Repurposing industrial by-products remains the most efficient and sustainable option, minimizing waste and avoiding the drawbacks of other renewable systems (RP_21).

Figure 5

NL faces significant challenges in scaling renewable energy, including high costs, land-use conflicts (e.g., deforestation for wind farms), intermittency issues (solar/wind limitations), and storage deficiencies (hydrogen inefficiencies). Economic and infrastructural barriers, particularly in remote regions, compound these difficulties, with high installation costs, technical complexity, and inadequate grid infrastructure impeding adoption. Respondents emphasize the need for phased, region-specific implementation, supported by policy incentives and community engagement, and advocate for hybrid systems (wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, hydro) tailored to local conditions rather than relying on single solutions. Comprehensive energy modeling is crucial to address viability concerns before large-scale deployment.

Based on insights from many respondents' responses, a feasibility matrix for the various renewable energy sources is presented below (Figure 6).

Figure 6

Based on the RES feasibility matrix in Figure 6, the following key insights and recommendations can be drawn.

Key Insights:

• Hydropower and Wind: High feasibility due to existing infrastructure (Muskrat Falls) and wind resources, but wind faces land-use debates.

• Geothermal: Viable for localized applications (e.g., greenhouses, homes) but lacks large-scale adoption due to high capital cost, among others.

• Solar and Hydrogen: Limited by NL's climate (solar) and technological/logistical barriers (hydrogen).

Recommendations:

• Prioritize wind + hydropower hybrids to leverage existing strengths.

• Pilot geothermal for agricultural applications (e.g., greenhouses).

• Address hydrogen/solar challenges through grants and R&D (e.g., improving solar panel efficiency).

• Hybrid systems (e.g., solar-geothermal), waste-to-energy (biomass/mill heat), and policy support (grants, local grids) are critical for adoption.

As RP_9 noted,

Our electricity grid is largely renewable, powered mainly by hydroelectricity. Expanding wind, hydrogen, solar, and geothermal systems could further strengthen clean energy production. Integrating solar and wind to power geothermal systems offers an ideal, sustainable solution, while advancing technologies and existing infrastructure position the province well for efficient, low-carbon greenhouse operations. (RP_9).

3.5 Opportunities for commercial greenhouse farming utilizing by-products in NL

Despite these challenges, several respondents identified strategic opportunities and potential pathways for NL to implement commercial greenhouses using by-products. As one respondent noted, “Newfoundland's potential is limitless but untapped. Implementation barriers aren't technical—just a lack of forward-thinking adopters. With proper support, we can deploy these technologies as effectively as Ontario despite our smaller population” (RP_10). These opportunities are further presented (see Figure 7) and elaborated on below.

Figure 7

Figure 7 shows the opportunities to utilize by-products for commercial greenhouse farming in NL, which are explained further below. It depicts an iterative circular model (not strictly in order), with feedback loops illustrating how waste streams, energy, and markets interact rather than following a one-way sequence.

3.5.1 Synergy amongst various stakeholders and industries

Several respondents highlighted the significant opportunity for synergistic collaboration across sectors to enhance the success of greenhouse ventures utilizing by-products in NL. RP_1 emphasized that initiatives like the Western Environment Center (a not-for-profit organization based in Corner Brook) run community gardens and composting programs, which could be strategically linked to greenhouse operations, enabling a circular system in which “organic by-products [are converted] into energy and nutrients.” This approach not only minimizes waste but also strengthens local food systems through integrated, mutually reinforcing processes.

RP_13 highlighted the value of knowledge-sharing networks, noting that “experienced farmers often offer free greenhouse rentals, allowing new entrants to gain hands-on experience,” and that organizations like the Young Farmers Association of NL provide mentorship, fostering intergenerational learning and innovation.

3.5.2 Policy, regulation, innovation

Policy reform and innovation offer some of the most promising opportunities for advancing the use of by-products in commercial greenhouses in Newfoundland and Labrador. According to RPs 12, 18, 19, and 21, policy reform, stakeholder collaboration, and waste utilization present key opportunities to advance greenhouse farming in Newfoundland and Labrador. Revising outdated regulations and supporting cross-sector innovation could enable the conversion of industrial by-products into agricultural inputs, reducing waste and improving food access. Strengthened market policies, targeted farmer incentives, and alignment with Canada's net-zero goals would further promote sustainable, climate-resilient local production. RP_12 emphasized that “Newfoundland's greatest opportunity lies in reviewing provincial legislation,” advocating for eliminating outdated laws and piloting innovative policies to enable cross-sectoral progress. Strategic legislative reform could unlock transformative growth in both agriculture and waste management. However, RP_18 noted that current marketing policies for local produce remain ambiguous. Expert input is needed to clarify policy gaps and support greenhouse growers in identifying viable market pathways. Finally, RP_9 stressed that, with “strong political support” for rural job creation and climate-aligned economic growth, the time is ripe for policy frameworks that catalyze domestic innovation in controlled-environment agriculture.

3.5.3 Availability of waste streams

The availability of diverse waste streams in Newfoundland and Labrador presents a compelling opportunity to support commercial greenhouse operations through localized circular-economy models. As RP_14 noted, the province's geographic isolation and high import costs create a strong incentive to develop circular systems that “repurpose what we already generate,” leveraging existing organic waste to reduce environmental impact and footprint, and enhance our sustainability goals and self-sufficiency. While rural areas may not generate waste at the scale of industrial hubs, they may offer “different—and potentially more valuable—byproducts” that can be transformed into safe, high-value agricultural inputs.

One promising example is the fisheries sector. RP_6 highlighted that Newfoundland's marine industries, particularly the anticipated boom in Redfish in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, produce substantial organic byproducts. These could be utilized through “hydro-solar hydroponic systems for plant growth” or via “hydrogen-to-ammonia conversion for fertilizer production,” creating integrated, renewable energy-aligned solutions that convert waste into agricultural assets. This approach aligns perfectly with both NL's industrial strengths and environmental priorities, offering economic benefits while solving waste management challenges.

However, as RP_5 cautioned, “consumer preference for organic agriculture”, public concerns and perceptions over contamination may limit the adoption of some industrial byproducts. Public trust and regulatory standards must therefore evolve alongside technological innovation to ensure that waste-derived inputs are both safe and publicly acceptable. Addressing these dual challenges—technical adaptation and social license—is key to fully capitalizing on Newfoundland's abundant but underutilized waste streams.

3.5.4 Education, research, and experimentation

Education, research, and applied experimentation were identified by 30% of respondents as key opportunities to advance greenhouse agriculture using industrial by-products in Newfoundland and Labrador. Institutions like the College of the North Atlantic (CNA) are laying important groundwork. As RP_13 noted, CNA's greenhouse production program “offers an excellent introduction to modern farming,” blending traditional knowledge with exposure to robotics and agricultural innovation. Early engagement initiatives such as SucSeed's school programs are critical for reshaping public perception and demonstrating that “today's agriculture is a viable tech-driven career for youth,” not a vestige of the past.

Beyond education, universities are well-positioned to drive innovation through applied research. RP_6 emphasized that “federal, provincial, and tri-council funders prioritize problem-solving initiatives,” creating opportunities for graduate research and faculty-led experiments. However, the impact depends on bridging theory with practice. RP_16 stressed the need to move “beyond publications into practical implementation, transform hypothesis into actionable business proposals,” calling for innovation hubs where universities partner with local industries, such as Corner Brook Pulp and Paper, and producers, to pilot scalable greenhouse and waste reuse solutions and turn ideas into tangible solutions that benefit local industries and communities. RP_6 and RP_7 noted that with the right strategy, one that leverages local advantages like clean energy, available land, and waste streams, greenhouse systems can be optimized for cold climates. This would require multidisciplinary research and models that justify higher prices based on sustainability and local sourcing.

Experimentation must start small. RP_15 advocated for “testing solutions through small-scale experiments” before scaling up, noting that “failure is part of the process.” With a small, interconnected population and strong academic infrastructure, NL has a unique opportunity to become a living lab for agricultural innovation. As RP_8 concluded, “the very challenge of our scale becomes the opportunity”—a strategic advantage in accelerating grassroots awareness, innovation and adoption of progressive solutions province-wide.

3.5.5 Food security and environment

Fifteen (15%) of respondents emphasized that greenhouse agriculture using by-products offers a strategic opportunity to simultaneously advance food security and environmental sustainability in Newfoundland and Labrador. Local greenhouse systems reduce reliance on imports, offering “affordable, sustainable advantages” that conserve land and cut transportation emissions (RP_19). More importantly, they increase year-round access to fresh vegetables, improving community health and filling a crucial gap in nutritional security. Beyond health and environmental benefits, local greenhouse operations present strong socioeconomic value. They “create immediate job opportunities,” providing residents with income while building hands-on agricultural skills (RP_19). By integrating greenhouse farming with regional employment and training programs, these initiatives can address systemic issues such as unemployment, food deserts, and community resilience while maintaining ecological balance.

Given food insecurity's continued status as a pressing, high-priority issue in the province, institutional procurement is a particularly promising avenue. RP_9 noted that “hospitals, schools, and universities are increasingly open to creative sourcing solutions,” suggesting a readiness among public institutions to shift toward local suppliers. This reorientation not only strengthens food security but also embeds sustainability into provincial supply chains. As RP_9 further explained, carbon pricing and rising import costs may increase demand for locally produced food, potentially enhancing the viability of sustainable, by-product-based greenhouse systems. Finally, by “keeping money in our economy” and partnering with supermarkets and local entrepreneurs, these systems can outcompete imports on both price and freshness (RP_6). This creates a self-reinforcing cycle—economic growth, improved nutrition, and reduced environmental impact—all stemming from strategic investment in local, by-product-powered greenhouse agriculture.

3.5.6 Business and Entrepreneurship

Fifteen percent of respondents identified business and entrepreneurship as pivotal opportunities for advancing commercial greenhouse development in Newfoundland and Labrador, particularly through the innovative use of by-products. As RP_6 observed, while industrial partners like local mills generate significant waste streams, they “prefer partnerships over operating greenhouses themselves,” creating a niche for entrepreneurs to step in. An important opportunity lies in developing business models that convert underutilized resources, such as by-products from hydrogen-to-ammonia processes, into profitable and scalable applications. These ventures not only reduce waste but also align with industry goals without requiring companies to diverge from their core operations.

RP_3 further pointed to the “St. Félicien model” in Quebec, where a centralized $100 M+ investment created a greenhouse monopoly focused on cucumbers. In contrast, Newfoundland's smaller scale and diverse climate allow for a more flexible, even greater opportunity and a decentralized model. The province's “isolation, reliance on ferries,” and long-distance transport routes (e.g. 9+ h from Port aux Basques to St. John's) increase the carbon footprint of imported produce, making a localized greenhouse industry (with diversified produce) both environmentally and economically viable. This context presents a unique chance to build mid-sized, diversified operations tailored to regional needs, balancing profitability, sustainability, and local supply resilience without needing massive infrastructure.

Despite existing challenges, Newfoundland and Labrador holds significant potential through policy reform, stakeholder collaboration, and emerging green industries. By leveraging local waste streams and fostering community-driven innovation, the province can align agricultural advancement with regional development, transforming barriers into opportunities for sustainable, inclusive, and resilient economic growth.

3.6 Conclusion

This study examined the potential role of expanded Controlled-Environment Agriculture (CEA), specifically greenhouse farming, in Newfoundland and Labrador (NL), focusing on its environmental, social, economic and technological contributions. The central argument—that greenhouse farming offers a transformative opportunity for NL to enhance food security, reduce carbon emissions, improve employment and well-being, and develop a sustainable agri-food system, was supported by qualitative insights from stakeholders and extensive literature.

The findings reveal that:

• - Environmental impact: When appropriately scaled and powered by renewable energy sources—particularly through agro-industrial symbiosis (e.g., utilizing waste heat and CO₂ from facilities like CBPPL), greenhouse farming can significantly reduce NL's carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE). This is especially impactful in displacing emissions from long-haul food transportation and reducing fossil fuel dependency.

• - Food security and social benefits: Stakeholders emphasized the potential of greenhouses to improve year-round access to nutritious food, enhance regional self-reliance, and mitigate vulnerabilities linked to NL's remote geography and changing climate.

• - Economic and technological potential: Beyond environmental and food system benefits, greenhouse agriculture fosters public health, job creation, and economic diversification. It also opens avenues for innovation through circular practices and innovative technologies. While NL faces challenges, such as high energy costs and harsh winters, it holds vast renewable energy potential (wind, geothermal, hydro) and emerging advanced technological opportunities (e.g., AI, robotics, hydrogen, by-products utilization, geothermal systems, etc.). Promoting greenhouse farming among youth is also essential, as only 1% of Canadian youth aged 14–35 consider agriculture a career o (LaPlante et al., 2021, p. 9), and NL's farming population is aging, with most farmers over 65.

• - The study advances the literature by identifying a persistent tension between stakeholder optimism and economic feasibility, rather than treating optimism as an unqualified indicator of opportunity. This tension is a central finding that helps explain low private investment despite apparent policy and market interest.

Despite its promise, several limitations persist. Chief among them are high capital costs, high energy costs, technological barriers, inconsistent renewable energy availability, and a lack of localized data on long-term viability. The province's continued reliance on fossil fuels for heating, combined with logistical challenges in renewable integration, hampers the scalability of greenhouse systems. Further, while this study provides valuable qualitative insight, it would benefit from complementary quantitative data, such as lifecycle emissions and cost-benefit analyses. Refining the renewable energy feasibility map by overlaying potential greenhouse sites could also improve planning and decision-making.

These findings have practical implications for various stakeholders in NL, as illustrated in Figure 8 below and detailed in Appendix E. The findings have implications for governments, industry, academia, greenhouse farmers, and indigenous communities in the province, encompassing research and innovation, education and skills training, energy and infrastructure, and economic and policy support.

Figure 8

3.6.1 Recommendations for future research

Future research should explore: (1) Piloting hybrid renewable-powered greenhouse systems in remote NL communities; (2) conducting pilot studies, modeling, and longitudinal monitoring of operational greenhouse farms to assess contributions to food access, affordability, and resilience.; (3) conducting policy simulations to identify effective incentive structures;

In conclusion, greenhouse farming has the potential to reframe NL's food-energy landscape and establish the province as a leader in sustainable northern agriculture—provided it is supported by integrated planning and strategic investment, circular-economy thinking, WEF-nexus approaches, technological innovation, and an enabling policy environment.

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