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        <title>Frontiers in Toxicology | New and Recent Articles</title>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/toxicology</link>
        <description>RSS Feed for Frontiers in Toxicology | New and Recent Articles</description>
        <language>en-us</language>
        <generator>Frontiers Feed Generator,version:1</generator>
        <pubDate>2026-05-13T06:58:08.313+00:00</pubDate>
        <ttl>60</ttl>
        <item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1639389</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1639389</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Next-generation full-thickness human skin models produced using 3D electrospun scaffolds and animal-component-free culture media]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-13T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Patrick J. Hayden</author><author>Jayashree Chakravarty</author><author>Rayan K. Hodroj</author><author>Sar R. Lindner</author><author>Lisa M. Fitzgerald</author><author>Jacob T. Le Do</author><author>Hsin Tzu Keng</author><author>Vivek Patel</author><author>Holger P. Behrsing</author><author>Matthew D. Phaneuf</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionIn vitro full-thickness human skin (FT-Skin) models are important tools for testing of cosmetics and chemicals, screening of new pharmaceuticals, and human disease modeling research. However, these skin models commonly utilize animal-derived collagen as a main structural element of the stromal matrix. Animal-derived collagen constructs suffer from stability and contraction issues, resulting in short lifespan and poor reproducibility. Additionally, culture media utilized to produce these models commonly contain undesirable animal-derived components including fetal bovine serum (FBS) and bovine pituitary extract (BPE).MethodsTo address these shortcomings, FT-Skin models were developed without animal-derived collagen by using electrospun scaffolds as a structural component of the stromal constructs, together with FBS- and BPE-free culture media formulations.ResultsThese novel culture protocols and media formulations produced well-developed FT-Skin models with improved lifespan and barrier properties. Protocol transferability, and intra- and inter-lot reproducibility of the FT-Skin models were demonstrated by testing in 2 independent laboratories.DiscussionThese next-generation FT-Skin models offer opportunities for completely animal-product-free testing of cosmetics and chemicals, screening of new pharmaceuticals and more human-relevant modeling of skin diseases. The electrospun scaffolds and basic processes for development of animal-free subepithelial stromal constructs are also anticipated to be adaptable to the development of additional epithelial tissue models such as ocular, airway and intestine.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1800157</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1800157</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Challenges and solutions in transitioning to animal-free standards: a comprehensive analysis of components in human cell-based developmental neurotoxicity assays]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Julia Vanessa Spänle</author><author>Lisa Maria Haiber</author><author>Bettina Seeger</author>
        <description><![CDATA[The replacement, reduction, and refinement (3Rs) of animal experiments is a central objective in modern toxicology. Human cell-based in vitro assays have become key tools to implement these principles by providing mechanistically driven and human-relevant New Approach Methodologies (NAMs) for toxicity testing. However, even in approaches that avoid the use of living animals, many protocols still rely on animal-derived cell culture components beyond fetal bovine serum (FBS), such as bovine serum albumin (BSA) in supplements, extracellular matrix (ECM) preparations such as Matrigel, and animal-sourced antibodies, which may introduce variability. This review provides a targeted materials analysis of human cell-based assays within the Developmental Neurotoxicity in vitro Battery (DNT-IVB), examining basal media, supplements, ECM, growth factors, and antibodies. While serum-free media are widely implemented, animal-derived components remain in use, particularly in supplements, ECM, and immunodetection workflows. Guidance documents, including OECD Good in vitro Method Practices (GIVIMP), or Good Cell Culture Practice (GCCP), promote replacing undefined components such as FBS, but ECM and BSA are less explicitly addressed. Recommendations from the European Union Reference Laboratory for Alternatives to Animal Testing (EURL ECVAM) encourage the use of animal-free antibodies where feasible. We propose a two-pronged strategy: (1) New protocols incorporate animal-free design from inception; (2) established DNT-IVB assays evaluate component reduction where feasible, balancing validation requirements with practicality. Manufacturers can contribute through standardized labeling (“serum-free,” “animal-free”, “xeno-free,” “chemically defined”) and expanded animal-free product availability. Updated GCCP/GIVIMP guidance could explicitly address BSA and ECM as sources of variability alongside serum. By addressing persistent animal-derived reagents, this reagents-focused review advances animal-free DNT-IVB implementation and supports broader 3Rs objectives by providing actionable strategies for animal-free cell culture in human-relevant NAMs.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1823460</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1823460</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Botulinum toxin type E alleviates trigeminal neuropathic pain via modulation of the HIF-1α–NLRP3 pathway]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>JoYoung Son</author><author>YuMi Kim</author><author>JinSook Ju</author><author>JaeYoung Kim</author><author>JeongSun Nam</author><author>YoonKyoung Cha</author><author>DongKuk Ahn</author>
        <description><![CDATA[BackgroundWhile botulinum neurotoxin type E (BoNT/E) has been shown to have analgesic effects in previous studies, the underlying mechanisms mediating its therapeutic effects remain incompletely understood. This study investigated the involvement of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in the antinociceptive effects of BoNT/E in a rat model of trigeminal neuropathic pain.MethodsNeuropathic pain was induced in male Sprague–Dawley rats through inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) injury.ResultsIAN injury significantly decreased air-puff thresholds, resulting in mechanical allodynia that persisted for up to 42 days. NLRP3 expression in the ipsilateral trigeminal ganglion (iTG) was significantly increased in the nerve-injured group on postoperative day (POD) 5. In contrast, subcutaneous administration of BoNT/E (6 or 10 U/kg) significantly attenuated mechanical allodynia and suppressed NLRP3 expression in the iTG on POD 5. Moreover, BoNT/E (10 U/kg) markedly reduced the elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-18, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and IL-6 in the iTG by IAN injury. The nerve-injured group also exhibited significant upregulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) expression in the iTG, which was significantly decreased following BoNT/E (10 U/kg) treatment. Intraganglionic injection of PX-478, a HIF-1α inhibitor, similarly attenuated mechanical allodynia, downregulated NLRP3 expression, and decreased IL-1β, IL-18, TNF-α, and IL-6 levels in the iTG.ConclusionCollectively, these findings demonstrate that modulation of the HIF-1α–NLRP3 pathway in the iTG plays a critical regulatory role in neuropathic pain development and suggest that BoNT/E may serve as a promising therapeutic strategy for managing chronic neuropathic pain.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1774625</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1774625</link>
        <title><![CDATA[PFOA/PFOS induce ferroptosis in bladder epithelial cells through inhibition of ACSL4 ubiquitination]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-11T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Hao Xu</author><author>Zhihua Ye</author><author>Juan Liu</author><author>Mengwei Liu</author><author>Qinghua Hu</author><author>Yi Liu</author><author>Qiankun Zhang</author><author>Jian Ou</author><author>Xin Shen</author><author>Xiaogang Chen</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Introduction Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental pollutants, but their role in bladder epithelial injury remains unclear.MethodsSV-HUC-1 cells were exposed to PFOA and PFOS. Cell viability, lipid peroxidation, and ROS levels were assessed using CCK-8 assay, flow cytometry, and transmission electron microscopy. Protein expression and ubiquitination were analyzed by Western blotting and molecular docking.ResultsPFOA and PFOS induced ferroptosis in bladder epithelial cells, characterized by increased lipid peroxidation and ROS levels. Mechanistically, PFOA/PFOS inhibited ACSL4 ubiquitination at K593 and K690, leading to its stabilization and promoting ferroptosis. Knockdown of ACSL4 significantly reversed these effects.DiscussionThese findings reveal a novel mechanism by which PFAS induce ferroptosis via regulation of ACSL4 ubiquitination, providing new insights into PFAS-induced bladder toxicity.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1771011</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1771011</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Machine learning-integrated network toxicology uncovers glioma targets of DEHP]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-08T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Ren Li</author><author>Chaomin Ren</author><author>Lu He</author><author>Shule Wang</author><author>Geng Guo</author>
        <description><![CDATA[BackgroundDi (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a ubiquitous environmental plasticizer, is increasingly linked to neurotoxicity and carcinogenesis. However, its role in glioma pathogenesis remains poorly understood. This study integrates network toxicology and machine learning to identify molecular targets of DEHP in glioma.MethodsPotential DEHP targets were identified through four databases (CHEMBL, CTD, SwissTargetPrediction, PharmMapper). Glioma-related genes were screened using differential expression analysis and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) on GEO and TCGA datasets. Overlapping genes were subjected to functional enrichment, followed by 127 machine learning models to prioritize core genes. SHAP analysis interpreted model contributions, while COX regression assessed prognostic value. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations evaluated binding stability between DEHP and target proteins. In vitro validation was performed in U87 cells via RT-qPCR and Western blotting.ResultsA total of 77 overlapping genes were identified, enriched in neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions, GABAergic synapses, and ion channel activity. Machine learning prioritized 12 key genes (e.g., RELA, ABCA1, HIF1A), forming a parsimonious 12-gene diagnostic model with strong external discrimination (pooled validation AUC = 0.994). A high DEHP-related risk score was associated with poorer survival in the TCGA cohort and showed similar prognostic stratification across the external CGGA_325, CGGA_693, and GSE16011 cohorts. Molecular simulations confirmed stable binding between DEHP and core proteins. Experimental validation demonstrated dose- and time-dependent upregulation of RELA, ABCA1, and HIF1A in DEHP-exposed U87 cells.ConclusionThis integrative approach provides a systems-level framework to prioritize DEHP-associated target genes and molecular signatures in glioma, extending beyond the previously reported PER3-related observation and offering candidate biomarkers for early detection and prognosis under environmental exposure.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1829326</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1829326</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Bridging gaps between scientific research and regulatory decision-making in Europe: roles of academia, risk assessors, and policymakers]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-04T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Policy and Practice Reviews</category>
        <author>Ana Fernandez-Agudo</author><author>Hannah Lester</author><author>Jose V. Tarazona</author><author>Fernando Rivero-Pino</author>
        <description><![CDATA[A gap between scientific research and regulatory frameworks continues to challenge the effective translation of science into policy and regulation. This commentary explores the disconnection between scientific research, regulatory agencies, and policymakers, highlighting the distinct yet interdependent roles they play. Researchers generate data, which is used by regulatory agencies for risk assessment, and these outcomes serve as the basis for policy development by policymakers. However, misalignments between these key stakeholders hinder effective integration, with consequences for advancing technological development. Additionally, it proposes a set of practical and strategic solutions that span academia, regulatory science, and policymaking to aid the effective integration of science into policy and regulation. Regulatory frameworks that encourage data harmonization, new options for validation, and accessibility are needed. Funding mechanisms that incentivize responsible and relevant research practices are also emphasized. Finally, the importance of open communication and targeted training for researchers and regulators to bridge knowledge gaps and build trust is also discussed. By addressing these issues, this manuscript aims to strengthen the synergy between scientific developments and regulation, advancing evidence-based policymaking. Enhancing robust, reliable and relevant science would improve regulatory decision-making processes, while also guiding researchers on responsible methodologies and setting standards for future research recommendations. The paper advocates for a collaborative approach to enhance the relevance and reliability of published research in guiding evidence-based regulation and policy.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1753174</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1753174</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Visual–acoustic thigmotaxis in zebrafish larvae: a high throughput NAM for neurotoxicity assessment]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-04T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Monica Torres-Ruiz</author><author>Maria Muñoz-Palencia</author><author>Antonio De la Vieja</author><author>Ana I. Cañas-Portilla</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionCurrent regulatory neurotoxicity guidelines do not include behavioral endpoints that capture stress-related responses. Zebrafish larvae prior to independent feeding offer a promising vertebrate model for developing new approach methodologies (NAMs) because they combine neurobiological relevance with high-throughput potential. In this study, we developed and evaluated a larval thigmotaxis assay to detect behavioral alterations induced by neuroactive substances.MethodsZebrafish larvae at 120 hpf were exposed for 1 h to model compounds and then challenged with visual (light/dark) and acoustic (tapping/silence) stimuli. Thigmotaxis, defined as edge-preference behavior, and locomotor activity were assessed. To increase throughput, we compared the conventional 24-round-well format with a 96-square-well format. Assay performance was evaluated using caffeine and diazepam as reference compounds, followed by additional neuroactive substances (chlorpyrifos, nicotine, dexamethasone, ethylenethiourea) and low-neuroactivity comparators (saccharin, amoxicillin). Benchmark dose modeling was used to compare the sensitivity of thigmotaxis and locomotor endpoints.ResultsThe 24-well and 96-well formats produced equivalent results, supporting use of the higher-throughput system. Reference compounds confirmed assay performance, with caffeine increasing thigmotaxis and diazepam decreasing it under specific stimulus conditions. Additional neuroactive substances produced stimulus-dependent behavioral responses, whereas saccharin and amoxicillin caused little or no effect. Across compounds, benchmark dose modeling showed that thigmotaxis was generally more sensitive than traditional locomotor activity endpoints.DiscussionThis multiplexed visual–acoustic thigmotaxis assay is reproducible, scalable, and sensitive for detecting neuroactive effects in zebrafish larvae. It can be used either as a stand-alone behavioral NAM or integrated into a broader test battery for neurotoxicity assessment. The method provides a practical and ethical tool to support chemical safety assessment in both ecotoxicology and human toxicology.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1790669</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1790669</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Next generation validation for next generation risk assessment]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-05-01T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Karolina Kopańska</author><author>Thomas Hartung</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Next generation risk assessment (NGRA) demands a fundamental transformation in how toxicological test methods are validated. Traditional validation approaches, designed for animal tests and mainly for simple in vitro methods, are increasingly inadequate for evaluating complex New Approach Methodologies (NAMs), artificial intelligence (AI)-based approaches, and integrated testing strategies (ITS). This paper presents a comprehensive framework for “next-generation validation” that leverages artificial intelligence and modern computational capabilities to create more efficient, thorough, and dynamic validation processes. The proposed framework emphasizes human relevance over simple concordance with animal data and emphasizes key innovations including e-validation, mechanistic validation, and post-validation companion AI agents. Because AI can inherit biases, obscure failure modes, and drift over time, the framework treats AI as both a tool for, and a subject of, validation, requiring transparent performance criteria, uncertainty quantification, and explicit governance for model updates and lifecycle monitoring. To make the framework actionable, we define a method as “NGV-validated for a stated context of use” when it meets pre-specified acceptance criteria across five domains, i.e., technical reliability, biological relevance, predictive performance, uncertainty quantification, and data integrity, supported by defined governance roles, version control, and lifecycle re-review triggers. e-validation employs sophisticated algorithms for reference chemical selection, study simulation, and continuous performance monitoring, while mechanistic validation evaluates whether methods accurately capture relevant biological pathways and mechanisms of toxicity. The paper addresses critical implementation challenges including data quality standardization, regulatory acceptance, and international harmonization, providing specific recommendations for various stakeholders. Looking forward, validation will increasingly embrace dynamic, adaptive approaches that evolve alongside scientific understanding and technological capabilities. The integration of artificial intelligence will enhance analysis of complex data, enable real-time monitoring of method performance, and support more sophisticated uncertainty quantification. Success in this transformation requires coordinated effort across regulatory agencies, industry partners, and academic institutions. In summary, this paper emphasizes a five-pillar framework integrating mechanistic, probabilistic, and AI-driven elements to reform toxicological validation. The proposed framework, exemplified here for tests for developmental neurotoxicants and virtual control groups, represents a crucial step toward more efficient and accurate chemical safety assessment while maintaining necessary standards for public health protection.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1818582</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1818582</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Toxic or non-toxic: a critical assessment of the contradictory results for selected graphene family materials]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-29T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Charlene Andraos</author><author>Victor Wepener</author><author>Mary Gulumian</author>
        <description><![CDATA[The toxicity of graphene, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene, selected members of graphene family materials (GFMs), has been widely investigated, yet reported biological effects remain highly inconsistent, limiting reliable hazard assessment. Here, we synthesize current evidence to examine how intrinsic material properties and methodological factors contribute to these discrepancies. Published studies were critically evaluated with particular attention to physicochemical characteristics, synthesis and post-processing histories, sonication protocols, and interactions with commonly used in vitro toxicity assays. The literature reveals that reported cytotoxic, genotoxic, and antimicrobial effects vary widely, ranging from pronounced dose-dependent toxicity to negligible or even beneficial biological responses. A major driver of these contradictions is pervasive interference of these selected GFMs with colorimetric, fluorometric, and luminometric assays, arising from adsorption, fluorescence quenching, optical masking, and catalytic effects, often compounded by insufficient experimental controls. Variations in oxidation state, defect density, surface chemistry, lateral size, and sonication-induced structural modification strongly influence both biological behaviour and assay artefacts, while additional confounders such as endotoxin contamination and residual impurities are rarely assessed. Overall, the evidence indicates that many contradictory toxicity outcomes reflect differences in material properties and assay interference rather than true biological inconsistency, underscoring the need for rigorous material characterisation and the adoption of interference-free or label-free testing strategies to generate reliable and reproducible toxicity data for these graphene materials.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1784229</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1784229</link>
        <title><![CDATA[A new in vitro rat liver platform capturing biological diversity for drug-induced liver injury assessment and reduction of animal use in drug discovery and development]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-28T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Pralhad Wangikar</author><author>Sara Cherradi</author><author>Pradhnya Choudhari</author><author>Aditi Wangikar</author><author>Vaibhav Madiwal</author><author>Salomé Roux</author><author>Nisha Banerjee</author><author>Pranav Panzade</author><author>Pallavi Gangarde</author><author>Nithish Kannan</author><author>Hong Tuan Duong</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major cause of drug development failure and market withdrawal. Despite the use of animal and human-derived preclinical models, none reliably predict human hepatotoxicity. Conventional animal studies, based on group-level averages, overlook inter-individual variability critical to idiosyncratic DILI. Although several alternatives to animal testing are available, implementation of alternative methodologies into safety evaluations is very slow and to date, no standalone validated alternative models to assess systemic toxicity exist. To address this, we developed a novel serum-educated rat liver spheroid model that captures individual metabolic diversity, allowing DILI to be assessed both in vitro and in vivo within the same animal. Building on this approach, the present study aimed to validate the model’s ability to detect DILI caused by well-characterized hepatotoxic drugs, including diclofenac and bosentan, in rat models. Rats were treated orally with diclofenac or bosentan for 28 days. Blood was collected pre-dosing to generate individualized spheroids containing rat hepatocytes, stellate cells, and macrophages. These spheroids were exposed to each drug across a ten-point concentration range for 3 days and cell viability was quantified using the CellTiter-Glo ATP assay. Clinical chemistry analyses of ALT, AST, ALP, albumin, and bilirubin were performed at in vivo study termination on day 29. In vitro data were analyzed using PredictCan-MIND to derive DILI severity scores and correlate in vitro cytotoxicity with in vivo biomarkers. In vivo, diclofenac caused no significant liver enzyme elevations, although some rats, exclusively females, displayed subtle toxicity revealing sex-dependent susceptibility. Corresponding in vitro spheroids confirmed hepatocellular injury in these individuals. Bosentan produced a mild cholestatic response in vivo without consistent enzyme elevation, while in vitro analysis showed clear hepatotoxicity in 8 of 10 rats. Notably, in vitro DILI severity correlated strongly with in vivo ALP levels, consistent with bosentan’s known cholestatic mechanism. The serum-educated rat liver spheroid model captures inter-individual and sex-related differences in hepatotoxicity and demonstrates translational concordance with in vivo cholestatic markers. This approach improves DILI prediction, aligns with the 3Rs principle, and supports a potential 50%–70% reduction in animal use for preclinical liver toxicity testing.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1653106</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1653106</link>
        <title><![CDATA[On the background of plastics nanoparticles in our research]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-23T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Brief Research Report</category>
        <author>Martin Lundqvist</author><author>Jing Hua</author><author>Mikael T. Ekvall</author><author>Tommy Cedervall</author>
        <description><![CDATA[We must recognize that plastics likely constitute a pervasive background in many environments. Beyond their previously documented risks to ecosystems and human health, plastics may also exert unintended influences on laboratory experiments, potentially distorting experimental outcomes. Here, we demonstrate that ultrasound treatment of commonly used laboratory test tubes releases nanoplastics into ultrapure water, reaching concentrations of up to 1–2 × 1010 particles mL-1 during water bath sonication, and we hypothesize how such contamination may affect experimental results.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1782869</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1782869</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Assessing drinking water treatment efficiency using passive sampling and cell-based bioassays]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-23T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Martin Ezechiáš</author><author>Michaela Hegrová Helusová</author><author>Gabriela Horáková</author><author>Eva Cséfalvay</author><author>Jaroslav Semerád</author><author>Ivana Kopecká</author><author>Tomáš Cajthaml</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionDrinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) are designed to protect public health; however, residual contaminants may persist after treatment and elicit biological effects that are not fully covered by routine chemical monitoring.MethodsIn this study, we combined Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS) with in vitro bioassays to evaluate residual biological activity in raw and treated water from six full-scale DWTPs in the Czech Republic. POCIS were deployed at raw- and treated-water points to collect extracts representing mixtures of polar and semi-polar contaminants under realistic exposure conditions. These extracts were evaluated using transcriptional responses in the RTL-W1 rainbow trout cell line and receptor-mediated yeast bioassays specific for estrogenic and progestogenic activity.ResultsAmong the evaluated biomarkers, gene expression of CYP1A was the most strongly and reliably induced, indicating the presence of AhR-active substances in raw water and, in several cases, incomplete removal of these substances during treatment. In contrast, genes related to phase II detoxification, cell stress, and oxidative stress (GST, HSP, and Nrf2) responded weakly, suggesting a predominantly receptor-mediated mechanism of action rather than generalized cytotoxicity. Estrogenic activity was detected in all raw waters but was below detection limits in all treated waters, indicating efficient removal of estrogenic substances during treatment. Progestogenic activity was not detectable.DiscussionThis study highlights the importance of effect-directed analysis for assessing the efficiency of drinking water treatment processes and confirms the suitability of passive sampling combined with bioassays for identifying treatment-resistant bioactivities.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1727831</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1727831</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Acute anti-proliferative and anti-migratory effects of cannabidiol on C6 rat glioma, SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma, and HT22 mouse hippocampal neuronal cell cultures]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-21T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Kittikun Viwatpinyo</author><author>Sujira Mukda</author><author>Aktsar Roskiana Ahmad</author><author>Sakan Warinhomhoun</author>
        <description><![CDATA[BackgroundThe treatment of central nervous system tumors remains challenging owing to their highly proliferative nature, aggressiveness, and poor prognosis. Additionally, existing treatment methods have several problems, including high risk of complications, systemic side effects, and impact on patients’ quality of life. Recently, cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive cannabinoid found in Cannabis sativa, has emerged as an alternative therapeutic medication because of its potential antitumor activity with fewer side effects.MethodsWe evaluated the cell viability, clonogenicity, migration, apoptotic nuclear morphology, and cell cycle phases of C6 rat glioma, SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma, and HT22 immortalized mouse hippocampus neuronal cultures treated with CBD ranged between 0 and 10 μg/mL.ResultsCBD concentrations exceeding 5 μg/mL induced significant reductions in cell viability in C6 glioma and SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cultures, accompanied by decreased clonogenicity in both cultures at 10 μg/mL. A scratch assay for cell migration revealed that 5 μg/mL CBD suppressed C6 glioma cell migration. Additionally, late apoptotic nuclear morphology was observed in C6 glioma cultures treated with 10 μg/mL cannabidiol. Similarly, HT22 hippocampal neuronal cultures exhibited decreased cell viability and clonogenicity, with apparent nuclear signs of apoptosis at CBD concentrations over 5 μg/mL. Notably, CBD disrupted HT22 cell migration at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 μg/mL. Proteomic profiling of C6 glioma revealed upregulation of ribosomal proteins, molecular chaperones, and modulators of cytoskeletal dynamics upon treatment with 1 μg/mL CBD. In comparison, treatment with 2.5 μg/mL CBD led to marked downregulation of endoplasmic reticulum chaperones, mitochondrial ATP synthase, and cytoskeletal regulators.ConclusionOur findings confirm the sensitivity of glioma, neuroblastoma, and hippocampal neuronal cultures to CBD, providing valuable insights for further research into its therapeutic potential against glioma, neuroblastoma, and neuronal disorders.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1796387</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1796387</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Examining in vivo effects of silychristin, a potent in vitro inhibitor of thyroid hormone transporter MCT8]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-21T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Kostja Renko</author><author>Ryne Thomas</author><author>MaryAnn Hawks</author><author>Jermaine Ford</author><author>Josef Köhrle</author><author>Marta Axelstad</author><author>Mary E. Gilbert</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Thyroid hormone (TH) availability is particularly critical for early brain development. TH transport across the blood-brain barrier is facilitated through two main transmembrane transporters: monocarboxylate transporter 8 (MCT8) and organic anion transporter 1C1 (OATP1C1). Inhibition of MCT8-mediated TH transport has been identified for a number of environmental chemicals using in vitro screening assays. Here we examined the in vivo effects of exposure to a potent in vitro inhibitor of MCT8, the flavonolignan silychristin, on several aspects of the TH system. Adult female rats were daily gavaged with 0, 250, or 500 mg/kg/day (n = 10/group) of silychristin for 7 days and euthanized on day 8. A smaller group (n = 5/group) of rats was administered the related flavonolignan, silybin (900 mg/kg), or the milk-thistle-derived flavonolignan mixture, silymarin (1,500 mg/kg). Serum TH concentrations were not changed in any treatment group. Mct8 and Oatp1c1 expression were upregulated in the choroid plexus upon silymarin exposure, without change in response to silychristin or silybin. Deiodinase 1 and dehalogenase activities, unchanged in the liver, were increased in the thyroid by the high dose of silychristin. These changes may have been triggered by increased thyroidal TH content, consequent to a reduction in MCT8-mediated TH efflux. Pharmacokinetic properties of silychristin and other flavonoids result in their low bioavailability and likely contributed to the largely negative findings. These observations demonstrate the challenges in extrapolating results from in vitro models to studies in intact organisms, showcasing the importance of selecting appropriate animal models and the best experimental design for assessing effects on human health.]]></description>
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        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1735718</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1735718</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Protein quality and allergenicity assessment of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica): a molecular perspective on novel food safety]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-20T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Luisa Calcinai</author><author>Sara Cutroneo</author><author>Ilaria Puxeddu</author><author>Simon Dirr</author><author>Özlem Özmutlu Karslioglu</author><author>Tullia Tedeschi</author>
        <description><![CDATA[PurposeThis study aimed to assess the protein quality and allergenic potential of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica), introduced in European market as a novel food (Regulation European Union 2015/2283) in 2019. Although chia is increasingly used as a plant-based ingredient, information regarding its protein profile and sequences is still limited. It follows that, without this essential knowledge, information of its allergenic potential is also lacking. Therefore, this work pose itself as a first building block, providing a detailed molecular characterisation of chia proteins and evaluating their allergenic potential and IgE cross-reactivity with other known allergens, such as sesame (Sesamum indicum).MethodsThree chia flour samples—partial defatted flour as reference, standardised partial defatted flour, and protein concentrate—were analysed. Protein content was determined by Kjeldahl method. Protein quality was evaluated based on the amino acid profile and the estimation of amino acid score. Proteins were identified by SDS-PAGE through comparison with existing literature and then confirmed by in solution tryptic digestion coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis. Allergenicity was assessed by in silico sequence homology analysis with characterised sesame linear epitopes and in vitro immunoblotting using sera from sesame-allergic patients.ResultsThe protein content ranged from 25% to 26% in the raw materials to 56% in the concentrate. Furthermore, SDS-PAGE profiles were comparable between samples, confirming the effectiveness of the extraction method applied. All samples showed balanced amino acid profiles and amino acid scores above one, meeting FAO/WHO requirements for adults and children. The main proteins identified in chia were 11S and 7S globulins, albumins and oleosins. The identified chia peptides were used to obtain a coverage of these with sesame protein sequences, confirming the attended homology. The potential cross-reactivity with sesame proteins, primarily retrieved from the literature, was then confirmed in vitro. IgE-binding was detected for major chia proteins, such as 11S and 7S globulin, and 2S albumin endorsing the attended cross-reactivity with sesame proteins.ConclusionThis study provided insights on the effectiveness of the extraction method applied on chia protein quality, which is essential for their inclusion in balanced food formulations. The approach used for assessing allergenicity also highlighted that the level of molecular and immunological knowledge can differ among novel foods, making it challenging to define a general methodological framework for evaluating their allergenic potential and cross-reactivity risks. These results can be useful both as starting point for the inclusion of protein extracts from chia seeds as safe ingredient, while also highlighting the current lack of comprehensive molecular characterization—including incomplete sequence data and uncharacterized potential epitopes—which limits the full assessment of their allergenic risk.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1812922</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1812922</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Transcriptomic and functional profiling of endothelial dysfunction induced by polystyrene nanoplastics]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-17T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Joan Martín-Pérez</author><author>Aliro Villacorta</author><author>Javier Gutiérrez-García</author><author>Raquel Egea</author><author>Michelle Morataya-Reyes</author><author>Mireia Cassú-Casadevall</author><author>Irene Barguilla</author><author>Ricard Marcos</author><author>Alba Hernández</author><author>Alba García-Rodríguez</author>
        <description><![CDATA[BackgroundThe presence of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPLs) in human blood raises concerns about their vascular impact and their potential contribution to cardiovascular diseases. Endothelial cells are a primary target of circulating MNPLs; however, the molecular and functional consequences of this exposure remain largely undefined.MethodsIn this study, we exposed primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) to carboxylated polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPLs; 30, 50, and 100 nm) and integrated RNA sequencing with targeted functional assays.ResultsTranscriptomics revealed a robust response characterized by coordinated dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis, genotoxic stress and DNA repair, inflammatory signaling, and endothelial plasticity (endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition). Guided by these signatures, functional assays confirmed increased intracellular cholesterol, DNA damage, remodelling of migratory capacity and angiogenic behaviour, and reduced IL-6 secretion.DiscussionOverall, the concordance between transcriptomic programs and functional endpoints supports a mechanistic framework in which PS-NPL exposure rewires endothelial metabolic and stress-response networks, with downstream consequences for key vascular functions. Differences across the nanoscale range modulated the magnitude and temporal profile of specific endpoints, but the shared molecular core response predominated across treatments.]]></description>
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        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1740390</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1740390</link>
        <title><![CDATA[New approach methodologies (NAMs) to support regulatory assessment of developmental immunotoxicity – a new PARC project]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-17T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Nicola M. Smith</author><author>Véronique M. P. de Bruijn</author><author>Rob J. Vandebriel</author><author>Rita Hargitai</author><author>Katalin Lumniczky</author><author>Aafke W. F. Janssen</author><author>Karsten Beekmann</author><author>Birol Usta</author><author>Julia Tigges</author><author>Christiane Spruck</author><author>Selma Hurem</author><author>Martina Iulini</author><author>Emanuela Corsini</author><author>Anne Bado-Nilles</author><author>Rémy Beaudouin</author><author>Ioanna Katsiadaki</author><author>Irene Cano</author><author>Marion Sebire</author><author>Humblenoble Stembridge Ayuk</author><author>Violeta Stojanovska</author><author>Ana C. Zenclussen</author><author>Etienne B. Blanc</author><author>Saadia Kerdine-Römer</author><author>Rafaela Lacerda</author><author>Luísa Romão</author><author>Pablo Monfort-Lanzas</author><author>Johanna M. Gostner</author><author>Archibold Mposhi</author><author>Jonathan D. Turner</author><author>Giorgia Del Favero</author><author>Birgitte Lindeman</author>
        <description><![CDATA[The current testing strategy for the assessment of developmental immunotoxicity (DIT) in European chemicals regulations has well recognised limitations. In response to these limitations, the Partnership for the Assessment of Risks from Chemicals (PARC) initiated a 4-year DIT project in May 2025. This project comprises 14 partner institutions and will tackle two primary objectives: a) to enhance the DIT knowledgebase and refine the understanding of critical phases of immune system development, and b) to facilitate the transition towards the use of New Approach Methodologies (NAMs) in DIT risk assessment. The first objective will be approached by reviews of existing literature and the continued advancement of a physiological map of human immune system development. The reviews and the physiological map will in turn serve as foundational tools to support NAMs and Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) development. Addressing the second objective, the project has a short-term aim to promote a testing strategy that leverages current immunotoxicity assays and their modifications to inform regulatory decision processes such as screening, prioritisation and read-across analyses. In the longer term, novel NAMs, encompassing developmental processes, will be developed and assessed for their regulatory applicability. While the primary focus of this PARC project is on the enhancement of human DIT risk assessment, it also aims to contribute to the advancement of ecotoxicological evaluation of immunotoxicity.]]></description>
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        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1758512</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1758512</link>
        <title><![CDATA[From beauty to burden: mapping the health and psychosocial impacts of fragrances and cosmetic products use in the UAE]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-15T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Sharifa AlBlooshi</author><author>Mariam Al Ali</author><author>Dana N. Abdelrahim</author><author>Suheir Awadalla</author>
        <description><![CDATA[BackgroundThe dynamic beauty care sector in the Middle East is on an upward trend in the UAE; however, concerns persist about the side effects of this industry, attributed to chemical exposure, which is believed to contribute to skin problems and other health issues. In the UAE, there is a lack of data on consumer usage, awareness, and the health effects associated with it.MethodsThis study presents the results of an online survey administered to 461 female subjects in the United Arab Emirates as part of a cross-sectional study. The survey consisted of 55 questions on product use, knowledge, attitudes, safety measures, and potential adverse health effects. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis were applied to identify predictors of adverse reactions.ResultsAmong the 461 participants, most were aged 18–29 years (55.7%) and university educated (68.3%). The application of scent and makeup was almost widespread, as 91.5% of users applied scented products daily, and 100% of users mentioned cosmetics, 36.4% of respondents reported health problems caused by the use of these products, with the most common issues being persistent respiratory problems (16.3%), headaches (15.8%), and skin irritation (11.9%). Knowledge of fragrance safety was moderate, with only 43.8% recognizing that fragrances contain complex chemical mixtures. The study demonstrated daily cosmetic use in 75.1% of individuals who frequently perform allergy tests, and limited safety practices in 6.7% of these individuals. While allergy testing was protective, logistic regression analysis revealed that younger age, higher education, a history of allergies, and frequent product use were predictors of adverse events. This has led to the association of widespread use of fragrances and cosmetics amongst women in the UAE with major respiratory and dermatological problems.]]></description>
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        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1808944</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1808944</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Comparative evaluation of enzymatic, acidic, and alkaline digestion protocols for organic matrix removal from lyophilized and frozen mussel samples (Mytilus galloprovincialis)]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-15T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>S. Turmanova</author><author>Y. Hristov</author><author>D. Kiryakova</author><author>E. Ivanova</author><author>P. Atanasova</author><author>G. Kolchakova</author><author>A. Ilieva</author><author>E. Mollova</author><author>A. Dimitrov</author><author>N. Todorov</author><author>G. Grigorova</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Efficient removal of organic matter from biological matrices is a critical step in the analysis of microplastics in marine organisms. In this study, enzymatic (Kreon®25,000), acidic (HNO3 + H2O2), and alkaline (KOH + H2O2) digestion protocols were comparatively evaluated for the treatment of lyophilized and frozen Mytilus galloprovincialis samples. Digestion efficiency was assessed gravimetrically, while the effects of the protocols on polymer integrity were examined using ATR-FTIR, HQI analysis, and microscopic observations on representative polymers (HDPE, PA, PET, PVC). All three methods demonstrated high digestion efficiencies (>96%). Acidic digestion provided rapid and stable removal of organic matter within 20 min, whereas enzymatic digestion required longer incubation times (2–24 h) but exerted the least impact on polymer integrity. Frozen samples consistently showed slightly higher digestion efficiencies compared to lyophilized ones, likely due to preserved tissue hydration facilitating reagent penetration. Microscopic and spectroscopic analyses revealed that HDPE and PET maintained their structural and chemical integrity under all treatments, whereas PA and PVC exhibited surface alterations after acidic digestion. Enzymatic and alkaline protocols did not produce visible or spectral changes in any polymer type. Based on these findings, the enzymatic protocol was selected for recovery experiments. Mass-corrected recovery values ranged from 92.87% to 95.36% for PA, PET, and PVC, and 75.69% for HDPE, indicating that the method allows effective isolation of most polymers while preserving their integrity. The results demonstrate that although all digestion methods are efficient in removing organic matter, enzymatic digestion provides the most reliable approach for microplastic analysis in Mytilus galloprovincialis, ensuring both high digestion efficiency and preservation of polymer characteristics.]]></description>
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        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1773891</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ftox.2026.1773891</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Organ-specific bioaccumulation and deterministic health risk assessment of selected heavy metal(loid)s in commercial fish from a southern harbor region (Nagapattinam)]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-10T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Suryapratap Ray</author><author>Rahul Vashishth</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionHeavy metal contamination of coastal waters results in bioaccumulation in fish, posing a significant route of human exposure via seafood consumption. The present study focuses on organ-specific metal distribution and associated health risk indices in three important fish species from the Nagapattinam coast, India.MethodsIn the current study, three species of fish (Nemipterus japonicus, Oreochromis mossambicus, and Lates calcarifer) were considered with three biological replicates per species obtained from local fish markets of Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India, during January–February 2024. The HM profiling was performed on three organs: liver, gills, and muscle tissues. HMs, including arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), strontium (Sr), and vanadium (V), were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).ResultsThe concentrations were found to be in the range of 0.025–21.53 μg kg−1. Upon non-carcinogenic risk assessment, the target hazard quotient (THQ) for all species was found to be <1 for both adults and children, indicating low non-carcinogenic risk associated with the consumption of the selected species under the assumed intake scenario. In contrast, the cancer risk (CR) value for chromium in Nemipterus japonicus was found to be elevated (children: 1643.58 × 10−6 and adults: 939.19 × 10−6), assuming a conservative worst-case exposure scenario in which total chromium is considered as Cr(VI), potentially inflating cancer risk estimates.DiscussionOverall, the findings suggest low non-carcinogenic risk under average consumption conditions; however, the estimated carcinogenic risk for chromium exceeded the commonly referenced acceptable threshold under conservative assumptions and should therefore be interpreted with caution. These results highlight the need for further investigation, particularly chromium speciation analysis, to refine risk estimates for fish consumed from the Nagapattinam marketplace.]]></description>
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