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        <title>Frontiers in Virology | New and Recent Articles</title>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/virology</link>
        <description>RSS Feed for Frontiers in Virology | New and Recent Articles</description>
        <language>en-us</language>
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        <pubDate>2026-05-02T23:38:08.738+00:00</pubDate>
        <ttl>60</ttl>
        <item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1819287</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1819287</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Increasing CD4/CD8 ratio confirmed after two years of long-acting cabotegravir and rilpivirine in the SCohoLART study]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-27T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Brief Research Report</category>
        <author>Gabriele Loi</author><author>Nicolò Capra</author><author>Riccardo Lolatto</author><author>Marcella Negri</author><author>Gaia Catalano</author><author>Flavia Passini</author><author>Nicolò Moschetta</author><author>Claudia Benelli</author><author>Silvia Nozza</author><author>Antonella Castagna</author><author>Camilla Muccini</author>
        <description><![CDATA[BackgroundLong-acting (LA) cabotegravir plus rilpivirine (CAB/RPV) is an established maintenance option for virologically suppressed people with HIV (PWH), but long-term real-world data on immune balance and cardio-metabolic and renal markers remain limited. This study evaluated immunologic, metabolic and renal changes in PWH switching to LA CAB/RPV.MethodsSCohoLART is a single-center prospective cohort enrolling virologically suppressed adults switching to every-2-month LA CAB/RPV. Baseline characteristics were summarized using medians (IQR) or proportions. Longitudinal changes were estimated using linear mixed-effects models to derive crude annual mean slopes (95% confidence interval; 95% CI). Participants initiating or discontinuing statins during follow-up were excluded from lipid analyses. Multivariable analysis assessed the impact of prior antiretroviral therapy (ART) backbone on immunologic outcomes.ResultsA total of 549 participants were included (91.3% male; median age 48.9 years [39.7–56.3]; median prior ART exposure 11.3 years [7.9–17.3]) with a median LA follow-up of 24.0 months (IQR17.0–26.8). At switch, median CD4/CD8 ratio was 0.98 (0.70–1.28), with CD4 and CD8 counts of 795 (604–994) and 850 cells/µL (642–1113). The CD4/CD8 ratio increased by 0.05/year (95% CI 0.04–0.06; p<0.001), driven by declining CD8 counts (−27.90 cells/µL/year; p<0.001), while CD4 counts remained stable. Total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased modestly (−1.72 and −4.40 mg/dL/year). Estimated glomerular filtration rate increased (+1.16 mL/min/1.73 m²/year) and creatinine decreased (−0.04 mg/dL/year). Weight and body mass index were unchanged.ConclusionSwitching to LA CAB/RPV was associated with improved CD4/CD8 ratio and modest favorable lipid and renal trends over 24 months.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1752210</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1752210</link>
        <title><![CDATA[ZFP36L1 negatively regulates autophagy and contributes to suppressing murine norovirus replication]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-21T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Malabika Bhowmik</author><author>Tooba Momin</author><author>Abiageal Newell</author><author>Mychaela Janzow</author><author>Neeraj Singh</author><author>Amit Singh</author><author>Mahmoud Darweesh</author><author>Mrigendra Rajput</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Norovirus is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide, particularly in young children, and represents a significant public health concern. ZFP36L1, an RNA-binding protein, has demonstrated antiviral effects against several viruses, but its role in norovirus infection has not been previously studied. This study used murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) as a model to investigate the antiviral role of ZFP36L1 against norovirus. The results show that overexpression of ZFP36L1 suppressed while knockdown of ZFP36L1 increased MNV-1 replication. MNV-1 infection induced autophagy, as indicated by increased levels of ATG13 and LC3-I to LC3-II conversion. Pharmacological modulation of autophagy-related pathways using rapamycin or 3-methyladenine was associated with changes in MNV-1 replication. ZFP36L1 overexpression reduced the expression of autophagy-related markers under basal conditions and following MNV-1 infection or rapamycin treatment indicating the ZFP36L1-mediated autophagy suppression contributed to a reduction in MNV-1 titer. ZFP36L1 overexpression led to reduced expression of several autophagy-related genes, including ATG13, Beclin-1, and Bcl-2, although the Beclin-1/Bcl-2 ratio remained unchanged. The decrease in ATG13 may be the reason for impaired autophagy and reduced autophagy may be one of the contributing factors to ZFP36L1-mediated norovirus suppression; however, other mechanisms such as direct interactions between ZFP36L1 and noroviral RNA still need to be investigated.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1838913</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1838913</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Editorial: SARS-CoV-2: virology, epidemiology, diagnosis, pathogenesis and control, volume II]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-21T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Editorial</category>
        <author>Severino Jefferson Ribeiro da Silva</author><author>Larissa Krokovsky</author><author>Ronaldo Celerino da Silva</author><author>Zhen Qin</author>
        <description></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1791294</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1791294</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Acid sphingomyelinase inhibition as an antiviral strategy: mechanisms, functional inhibitors, and therapeutic potential against SARS-CoV-2 and beyond]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-02T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Suvechha Bhandari</author><author>Abimbola O. Kolawole</author><author>Craig A. Rohan</author><author>Jeffrey B. Travers</author>
        <description><![CDATA[The entry, replication, and egress processes of viruses depend on their ability to hijack host lipid metabolism. At the core of many viruses is the acid sphingomyelinase (ASM)–ceramide pathway: ASM hydrolyzes sphingomyelin into ceramide, creating ceramide-enriched platforms that cluster receptors and endocytic components to thereby facilitate viral attachment, fusion, and intracellular trafficking. This review will analyze evidence from various virus families, including coronaviruses, to show how ASM/ceramide regulation impacts viral infectivity. The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), post-binding to the host cell, stimulates ASM activation to subsequently induce the ACE2/TMPRSS2 clusters that increase viral entry. Studies show that viral entry is blocked with ASM inhibitors. Beyond cell entry, ceramide functions as a key factor that promotes the formation of microvesicle particles (MVPs), which leads to the release of inflammatory mediators and viral components, thus creating a link between ASM activity with systemic inflammation and coagulopathy. We analyze functional inhibitors of ASM (FIASMs), which include multiple FDA-approved drugs that detach ASM from lysosomes to disrupt ceramide domains. FIASMs have been experimentally shown to block SARS-CoV-2 entry and ceramide-driven vesiculation in experimental models. Both observational clinical findings and initial research on FIASMs show promise. This review will evaluate both the advantages and limitations of the FIASM approach and provide recommendations for future studies on engineered vesicles as therapeutic decoys and biomarkers (sphingolipid signatures, vesicle cargo) for monitoring treatment success. The ASM–ceramide axis is a promising broad-spectrum host-directed antiviral pathway that has translational value for treating viral diseases beyond COVID-19.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1808060</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1808060</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Evolutionary dynamics of Erinaceus coronavirus in Italy: spike protein adaptation and variable CD200 ortholog insertion]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-04-01T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Luca De Sabato</author><author>Ilaria Di Bartolo</author><author>Irene Berselli</author><author>Giovanni Ianiro</author><author>Marina Monini</author><author>Monica Giammarioli</author><author>Marco Gobbi</author><author>Riccardo Orusa</author><author>Serena Robetto</author><author>Maria Lucia Mandola</author><author>Chiara Nogarol</author><author>Ana Moreno</author><author>Davide Lelli</author><author>Claudia Cotti</author><author>Mauro Delogu</author><author>Maria Alessandra De Marco</author><author>Stefania Leopardi</author><author>Francesca Festa</author><author>Manuela Marra</author><author>Valentina Libri</author><author>Stefania Pulcini</author><author>Francesca Manzia</author><author>Roberto Nardini</author><author>Maria Teresa Scicluna</author><author>Antonella Cersini</author><author>Claudia Eleni</author><author>Giulia Pacchiarotti</author><author>Gianluca Nocco</author><author>Maria Teresa Capucchio</author><author>Gabriele Vaccari</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionIn 2013, a novel coronavirus (CoV) species was identified in European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in Germany. Since then, only a limited number of studies reported the circulation of this virus, recognized as Erinaceus coronavirus (EriCoV), and demonstrated its evolutionary relationship with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Given that MERS-CoV is one of the three zoonotic coronaviruses known to cause severe disease in humans, these findings raise concerns about the zoonotic potential of EriCoV strains. In a previous study conducted in Italy, eight complete EriCoV genomes were obtained from hedgehogs sampled in Northern Italy, revealing substantial genetic heterogeneity among circulating strains. Genome analyses also identified the insertion of a gene encoding the CD200 ortholog, containing a short region potentially involved in host immune modulation. The present study aimed to investigate the circulation and genetic diversity of coronaviruses in hedgehogs from different areas of Italy and to assess the occurrence and distribution of the CD200 ortholog insertion. MethodsComplete EriCoV genomes were obtained from 35 hedgehogs using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) by Ion Torrent machine. For an additional 20 animals, full genome sequences could not be generated; therefore, sequences were obtained by nested RT-PCR amplifying partial sequences of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene and, when present, on the CD200 insertion. Phylogenetic analysis of sequences obtained were performed. ResultsPhylogenetic analysis revealed no clear geographic clustering, with sequences from Northern Italy interspersed with those from Central and Southern Italy. Analysis of the spike (S) protein identified 25 sites evolving under positive selection, three of which were located within the receptor-binding domain (RBD). The CD200 ortholog was confirmed in 15 complete genomes and in 5 additional samples by RT-PCR, collected from both Northern and Southern Italy. DiscussionOverall, the study confirms that EriCoV related strains are found across the country. A CD200 insertion appears in both Northern and Southern regions, but it is not consistently present, indicating that this insertion is not fixed within the viral population. Sites found under positive selection in spike protein, including three in the receptor-binding domain, that may be relevant for host–virus interactions and merit further investigation in the context of cross-species transmission risks.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1733412</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1733412</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Toward efficient surveillance: a proof-of-concept comparison of methods for detecting DNA and RNA viruses in wastewater]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-27T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Brief Research Report</category>
        <author>Marek Samec</author><author>Ivana Baranová</author><author>Renata Péčová</author><author>Martin Péč</author><author>Elena Nováková</author><author>Iryna Samec</author><author>Vincent Lučanský</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) represents a promising method for early detection and ongoing monitoring of various pathogens. This epidemiological approach has recently attracted significant research interest. During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, WBE was estimated as a complementary surveillance tool for mapping the spread of the virus within the population. Although this method has great potential for pathogen monitoring at both local and national levels, there are some limitations, notably the presence of high concentrations of inhibitors that contaminate extracted nucleic acids from wastewater, which can lead to false negative results. This proof-of-concept study focuses on detecting RNA and DNA viruses, specifically SARS-CoV-2 and adenovirus, in wastewater by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) and compares the results with those obtained with the routinely used RT-qPCR and qPCR methods. The results of our proof-of-concept study indicate that WBE represents a promising approach for monitoring pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 and adenovirus; however, challenges such as contaminants in wastewater need to be addressed to increase detection accuracy. Due to this limitation, novel technologies such as ddPCR offer new opportunities to improve epidemiological monitoring of various infectious agents in the population.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1801380</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1801380</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Re-opening the question of lower SARS-CoV-2 attack rates in active smokers: a perspective on viral interference and Tobacco Mosaic Virus]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-27T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Perspective</category>
        <author>Ernesto de Bernardis</author><author>Fabio Lugoboni</author><author>Lina Busà</author><author>Giulio Petronio Petronio</author><author>Roberto Di Marco</author>
        <description><![CDATA[During the COVID-19 pandemic, multiple observational studies reported a counterintuitive epidemiological observation: active smokers appeared less frequently infected or seropositive for SARS-CoV-2 compared with never-smokers, despite smoking being a risk factor for severe COVID-19 once infection occurs. This apparent paradox was rapidly marginalized due to public health concerns, leaving an informative biological observation largely unexplored. This Perspective proposes a mechanistic hypothesis to explain this paradox. We argue that much of this tension arises from a conceptual conflation between two distinct phases of the disease process: susceptibility to infection and progression to severe illness after infection has been established. Recent advances in virology and mucosal immunology make this question biologically plausible and experimentally tractable. These include: (i) evidence that plant viruses, including Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV), have been reported to be immunogenic in humans and capable of eliciting innate immune responses; (ii) direct documentation of mucosal exposure to TMV in smokers; and (iii) an improved understanding of viral interference, replication-independent RNA sensing, and interferon-lambda–mediated epithelial protection against SARS-CoV-2. This Perspective does not advocate smoking. Rather, it contends that if a specific biological component embedded within a harmful exposure were to modulate susceptibility to viral infection, scientific and ethical responsibility would require identifying that component, disentangling it from harm, rendering it safe, and evaluating its translational potential. We synthesize experimental evidence to propose interferon-mediated priming of innate mucosal immunity associated with Tobacco Mosaic Virus exposure as a testable mechanism underlying reduced SARS-CoV-2 attack rates in active smokers.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1755747</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1755747</link>
        <title><![CDATA[From academia to a country-wide response: contribution of university laboratories on the surveillance of emerging viruses in South America]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-26T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>María José Vásquez-Vidal</author><author>Pablo N. Castillo-Torres</author><author>Elisa Gutiérrez-Iturrieta</author><author>Fernando Morales-Andrade</author><author>Catalina Pardo-Roa</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Pandemic preparedness involves the contribution of several actors in society. Global response agencies such as WHO and WOAH, as well as local human/animal health institutions, play an essential role in monitoring emerging pathogens. Unfortunately, the epidemiological situation changes drastically during emergencies, and resources are always limited. During the last few years, several pathogens, mainly zoonotic-related viruses, have emerged worldwide, impacting health systems and reinforcing the need to maintain continuous surveillance to monitor the impact of these emerging pathogens on public health. Low- and middle-income countries have required the establishment of strategic alliances between different sectors to improve the coverage of this monitoring. For several years, academia has supported surveillance activities, and it has played an essential role in developing and transferring adapted methodologies to improve the response during viral outbreaks, mainly relevant during the last SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Here, we present the evidence of the contribution of local university laboratories to surveillance in some Latin American countries and highlight the relevance of this contribution to expanding the regional capacity to monitor endemic and emerging viruses, to create sustainable inter-institutional - governmental collaborative networks, and to guarantee long-term surveillance to generate high-quality data and promote informed decision-making based on local conditions.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1751938</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1751938</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Microbiota-derived succinic acid boosts antiviral activity of AKT targeting in coronaviruses]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-25T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Hanhan Feng</author><author>Xiaofeng Liu</author><author>Nanping Wu</author>
        <description><![CDATA[IntroductionCoronavirus infection in humans may cause not only pulmonary infection but also secondary intestinal infection. The AKT inhibitors have a significant inhibitory effect on various coronavirus infections, and they can effectively alleviate the intestinal barrier damage induced by the SARS-CoV-2. However, it is unknown how the AKT inhibitors exert their anti-viral effects through the intestinal tract.MethodsHCoV-OC43-infected mice were treated with MK-2206 or vehicle control via oral gavage. The body weight, viral load in the lungs, and pathological changes in the lung-intestine tissues were measured. Fecal samples were collected for 16S rRNA gene sequencing and non-targeted GC/LC-MS/MS metabolic profiling to determine the characteristics of the intestinal microbiota and metabolic profile.ResultsMK-2206 treatment significantly reduced the viral load in the lungs of infected mice and the damage to the lung-intestinal tissues. The analysis of the intestinal microbiota showed that MK-2206 treatment restored the levels of the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria phyla, increased the abundance of probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacillus, and decreased the abundance of Acinetobacter and Desulfobacter. Metabolomics analysis revealed an increase in the abundance of succinic acid, and the combination of succinic acid and MK-2206 exhibited a stronger antiviral effect.ConclusionBy integrating multi-omics methods, we discovered that succinic acid can enhance the antiviral efficacy of MK-2206, and clarified the related interactions between the intestinal microbiota and metabolites, revealing the crucial role of the intestinal microenvironment in the host’s response to MK-2206 treatment for coronavirus infection.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1761741</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1761741</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Iterative immunoprecipitation and phage pre-wash dramatically improve epitope-resolved serology by VirScan]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-25T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Methods</category>
        <author>Lily Kjendal</author><author>Chase Whelihan</author><author>Olivia Garvin</author><author>Benjamin Will</author><author>Ian Lee</author><author>Zachary D. Miller</author><author>William Dowell</author><author>Jacob Dearborn</author><author>Sylvester Languon</author><author>Tylar Kirch</author><author>Zachary R. Miller</author><author>Sophie Roy</author><author>Olivia Evans</author><author>Devdoot Majumdar</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Accurate mapping of antibody epitope repertoires is essential for understanding infection, vaccination, and immune history. Phage immunoprecipitation sequencing (PhIP-seq), including the widely used VirScan platform, offers single - peptide resolution across the human virome; however, such measurements are sometimes beset with limitations stemming from weak signal-to-noise ratio, non-specific phage binding, and inconsistent peptide enrichment. With such methods, it is imperative to differentiate true antibody-antigen interactions from background noise. Here, we systematically evaluate the impact of key experimental variables on assay performance and identify two synergistic modifications that markedly improve epitope-level viral serology: (1) iterative rounds of immunoprecipitation and (2) serum pre-washing with wild-type phage. Across healthy donor sera, pooled HIV-seropositive sera, and influenza-vaccinated rabbit sera, the optimized workflow produces a substantial expansion of the enriched peptide population, significantly higher normalized peptide counts, and improved separation of viral epitopes from background noise while preserving global library representation. The protocol enables quantitative detection of HIV epitopes across a 100-fold dilution series, resolving immunodominant gp160 regions, and identifies strain-specific hemagglutinin epitopes elicited by influenza vaccination, including expected public stem-directed linear epitopes. These results provide a reproducible, generalizable workflow that enhances viral epitope discovery, serosurveillance sensitivity, and vaccine-response mapping. This optimized PhIP-seq framework strengthens the utility of VirScan in systems virology by enabling more accurate and quantitative inference of viral antibody repertoires.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1726196</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1726196</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Commentary: E4orf1 as a key modulator in oncogenesis and of metabolism in Adenovirus infection]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-23T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>General Commentary</category>
        <author>Masoud Nateqi</author><author>Vijay Hegde</author><author>Nikhil V. Dhurandhar</author>
        <description></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1772993</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1772993</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Multicompartment modeling of influenza A replication along the murine respiratory tract]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-11T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Hypothesis and Theory</category>
        <author>Rodolfo Blanco-Rodriguez</author><author>L. America Chi</author><author>Esteban A. Hernandez-Vargas</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Influenza A virus spreads through the respiratory tract in a compartment-specific manner, yet the mechanisms governing its progression remain unclear. Here, we investigated how viral replication and inter-compartment transport shape infection dynamics across the nose, trachea, and lungs. To address this, we developed a multicompartment mathematical model based on a target-cell framework and fitted it to reported viral-load data from mice infected with the Udorn H3N2 strain, using bootstrap estimation to quantify uncertainty. The best-performing model revealed rapid amplification and substantial target-cell depletion in the nose, limited replication, and delayed viral dynamics in the lungs, mainly driven by input from upstream compartments. Transport parameters exceeded local replication rates in deeper regions, indicating that the nose serves as the primary site of viral replication and seeding. Overall, this study highlights the dominant role of the nasal compartment in driving within-host influenza progression.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1756837</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1756837</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Distinguishing the clinical types and laboratory markers of the ancestral and Omicron variants of COVID-19: a multicenter retrospective study]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-03-05T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Xiongwen Tu</author><author>Huijuan Li</author><author>Zhenjun Liu</author><author>Yusheng Cheng</author><author>Lingling Li</author>
        <description><![CDATA[ObjectiveOmicron has become a dominant variant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) worldwide. A majority of individuals infected with Omicron SARS-CoV-2 experience no or mild symptoms, but exhibit excessively higher transmissibility than those infected with the ancestral variant in 2020. This study aimed to identify the distinctive clinical types and laboratory markers of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).MethodsThis retrospective study was performed in multiple medical centers that treated patients infected with COVID-19. Demographic characteristics and laboratory data, such as the viral shedding time, blood routine test results, and biochemical indicators, were initially recorded after admission.ResultsA total of 59 patients with ancestral SARS-CoV-2 infection and 112 patients with Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection were eventually included. Patients with Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection were asymptomatic, whereas the ancestral variant was a common type. Patients with Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection had markedly higher white blood cell (WBC), eosinophil, and platelet (PLT) counts, but remarkably lower lymphocyte counts. The concentration of D-dimer was lower in the Omicron group than in the ancestral variant group. The Omicron variant showed a notably shorter viral shedding time than the ancestral variant, with median durations of 11 and 16 days, respectively (p < 0.001). Multivariate analysis revealed that WBC count, lymphocyte count, eosinopenia, D-dimer, alanine transaminase (ALT), and viral shedding time were independent risk factors for predicting Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves showed that viral shedding time, ALT, D-dimer, and lymphocyte count favored differential diagnosis of ancestral SARS-CoV-2 infection, whereas WBC and eosinophil counts favored differential diagnosis of Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection.ConclusionsA majority of patients with Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection are asymptomatic. WBC count, eosinopenia, and viral shedding time were identified as independent factors for predicting the risk of Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infection. Viral shedding time and eosinophil count were identified as biomarkers for differential diagnosis of ancestral and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 infections, respectively. Clinical features and various laboratory tests may serve as auxiliary reference indicators to complement viral nucleic acid testing (the diagnostic gold standard) for preliminary stratification of suspected COVID-19 cases, particularly in retrospective analysis of variant-related characteristics.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1751614</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1751614</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Honeybee venom therapy and viral infection: a systematic synthesis of venom antiviral activity]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-02-27T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Systematic Review</category>
        <author>Sirwan Sleman</author><author>Zaniar A. Abass</author><author>Barham J. Abdullah</author><author>Omed I. Abid</author><author>Masood B. Ameen</author>
        <description><![CDATA[The bioactive components of honeybee venom (HBV) have displayed broad evolutionary antiviral activity in animal models; however, there is limited evidence for the efficacy, indications, or side effects of the use of HBV in humans. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the available preclinical and clinical evidence systematically assessing the antiviral efficacy and safety of HBV. A comprehensive search strategy for all studies reporting HBV in relation to direct-acting antiviral effects was performed through electronic databases from their inception up to October 2025. A total of 32 articles were identified for quantitative synthesis, with some included under meta-analysis. Although majority of the studies show high heterogeneity and limitations, the meta-analysis results provide encouraging evidence for the broad-spectrum antiviral property of HBV against numerous viruses, such as influenza viruses, herpes simplex virus, HIV, hepatitis viruses, and emerging coronaviruses. Mechanistically, the HBV components directly disrupt viral replication or do so via body immunomodulation pathways. The main adverse effects of HBV include dose-related cytotoxicity and mild allergic responses, with rare instances (less than 0.1%) of anaphylaxis. Overall, the antiviral roles of HBV are strongly supported in preclinical studies, although the clinical data on humans have limitations. Therefore, improving formulations and conducting safety assessment in future clinical practice, particularly through the use of nanocarriers or combined therapeutic strategies, may enhance the imperative HBV antiviral potency and reduce its limitations.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1785598</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1785598</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Innovating virology: from empirical verification to hypothesis exploration]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-02-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Opinion</category>
        <author>Akio Adachi</author><author>Yuma Inamoto</author><author>Khanh Quoc Tran</author><author>Bao Quoc Le</author><author>Naoya Doi</author><author>Takaaki Koma</author><author>Masako Nomaguchi</author>
        <description></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1784809</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2026.1784809</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Editorial: Proceedings of the first RdRp Summit]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-02-04T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Editorial</category>
        <author>So Nakagawa</author><author>Artem Babaian</author><author>Simon Roux</author><author>Uri Neri</author>
        <description></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1705632</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1705632</link>
        <title><![CDATA[A next-generation strategy for HIV-1 vaccination: computational design of a multi-epitope subunit vaccine targeting global circulating variants]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-01-30T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Sajid Khan</author><author>Zarlish Attique</author><author>Muhammad Hamza</author><author>Lingyu Li</author><author>Muhammad Imran</author><author>Li Yu</author><author>Suping Zhang</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Despite decades of research, no effective cure or preventive vaccine exists for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). To address this gap, this study aimed to design a universal multi-epitope subunit vaccine (MESV) targeting conserved and immunogenic epitopes across diverse HIV-1 variants. Publicly available HIV-1 proteome data were analyzed using an immunoinformatics pipeline that integrates curated immunological databases and epitope-prediction servers, resulting in the identification of 44 conserved epitopes from the core proteome, including twelve newly identified relative to existing databases. The MESV was constructed using 14 linear B-cell epitopes and 30 T-cell epitopes restricted by globally conserved human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles, achieving 98.63% MHC-I and 99.67% MHC-II global population coverage. Molecular docking analysis revealed high binding scores and favorable energy values for MESV interactions with toll-like receptor 1 (TLR1) and toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), suggesting stable antigen recognition. After codon optimization, the MESV (889 aa) was expressed and purified using affinity chromatography, yielding an ~95.1 kDa protein confirmed by immunoblot analysis. In silico immunological simulations demonstrated robust humoral and cellular immune responses following three doses, including elevated IgG antibody levels and increased numbers of memory B cells, cytotoxic CD8+ T cells, and natural killer cells. Overall, this study highlights the potential of a computationally designed MESV to overcome HIV-1 diversity and induce broad-spectrum immunity. These findings warrant further in vitro and in vivo validation to confirm immunogenicity and protective efficacy, paving the way toward the development of a universal HIV-1 vaccine.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1749039</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1749039</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Bridging the gap: addressing real-life challenges to the implementation of DTG/3TC in treatment-naive people living with HIV]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-01-19T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Andrea Giacomelli</author><author>Gianmaria Baldin</author><author>Valeria Bono</author><author>Arturo Ciccullo</author><author>Maria Mazzitelli</author><author>Mariacristina Poliseno</author><author>Marco Ridolfi</author><author>Federica Sozio</author><author>Elisabetta Teti</author><author>Giulia Marchetti</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Dolutegravir/lamivudine (DTG/3TC), used as a two-drug regimen (2DR), has demonstrated non-inferiority to traditional three-drug regimens (3DRs) in treatment-naive people with HIV (PWH), with sustained virological efficacy, favorable tolerability, and a good safety profile. However, its implementation in routine clinical practice raises several questions, particularly in populations underrepresented in registration trials. This review critically appraises current evidence supporting DTG/3TC as first-line antiretroviral therapy, drawing from randomized clinical trials and real-world studies. Available data indicate that DTG/3TC maintains high virological suppression rates even in individuals with high baseline viral load (>500,000 copies/mL), with no emergent resistance. Evidence from test-and-treat settings suggests comparable efficacy to triple therapy, provided that hepatitis B coinfection and transmitted resistance are adequately excluded. Preliminary data in late presenters and those with advanced disease support its effectiveness, although confirmatory trials are warranted. Beyond viro-immunological outcomes, DTG/3TC appears equivalent to triple regimens in reducing viral reservoirs, immune activation, and systemic inflammation. Evidence in women living with HIV, including during pregnancy, remains limited but reassuring, with no major safety concerns identified. Overall, the body of clinical and real-world evidence supports DTG/3TC as a simplified and durable first-line regimen for most treatment-naive PWH. Ongoing research should further define its role in acute infection, advanced HIV disease, and specific subpopulations such as women and individuals from regions with high prevalence of non-B subtypes.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1748665</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1748665</link>
        <title><![CDATA[Exploring the role of rotavirus, adenovirus, and norovirus in gastroenteritis among children in Iraq: an epidemiological and molecular study]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-01-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Original Research</category>
        <author>Rana Fattah Mahmood</author><author>Fakher Frikha</author><author>Ismail Ibrahim Latif</author><author>Ahmed H. Ghonaim</author><author>Noura Bougacha-Elleuch</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Background and aimAcute gastroenteritis (AGE) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among children <5 years, with rotavirus A (RVA), adenovirus (AdV), and norovirus (NoV) being key viral agents. Co-infections may contribute to worse outcomes and viral evolution. Data on RVA co-infections and VP6 molecular characteristics in Iraq are limited. This study investigated the epidemiology of the three viruses and characterized RVA VP6 to address this gap.Materials and methodsFrom September 2022 to August 2023, 170 stool samples were collected from children with AGE admitted to AL-Batool Teaching Hospital. All samples  were tested for RVA, AdV, and NoV by RT-PCR. VP6 subgrouping and phylogenetic analyses were performed on RVA-positive samples, and homology modeling with molecular dynamics simulations assessed structural impacts of VP6 amino acid changes.ResultsRVA, AdV, and NoV rates were 45%, 6%, and 3%, respectively. Overall, 86% of samples were positive for one or more viruses, and co-infections were detected in 4.1%, predominantly RVA–AdV. Rural residence and children aged 0–12 months were significantly associated with RVA infection, with seasonal peaks in winter and spring. VP6 subgroup II predominated (84.2%) and was associated with severe diarrhea. All VP6 sequences clustered within the DS-1-like (I2) lineage, sharing >98% identity with regional strains. Key substitutions (I38L, F63L, R117G) increased VP6 monomer stability without affecting trimer assembly.ConclusionAlthough co-infections were infrequent, their clinical relevance and the high viral loads observed underscore the need for ongoing surveillance of enteric viruses in Iraqi children with AGE. This study provides the first molecular and structural characterization of RVA VP6 in Iraq, highlighting the evolutionary stability of the DS-1–like backbone and its importance for genomic surveillance and vaccine development.]]></description>
      </item><item>
        <guid isPermaLink="true">https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1730609</guid>
        <link>https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fviro.2025.1730609</link>
        <title><![CDATA[From COVID-19 to global health: challenges and opportunities in mRNA vaccine manufacturing]]></title>
        <pubdate>2026-01-12T00:00:00Z</pubdate>
        <category>Review</category>
        <author>Varun Choudhary</author><author>Anirudh Mehta</author><author>Moazam Niaz</author><author>Aditya Pradeep Sohoni</author><author>Pooja Dave</author><author>Urenna Nwagwu</author><author>Abdul Samad</author>
        <description><![CDATA[Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have emerged as a powerful tool in combating infectious diseases, including COVID-19, by synthesizing and delivering bioactive mRNA molecules that must remain stable and functional to transcribe target genes and effectively enter host cells. This review provides a brief examination of the synthesis and purification processes of mRNA vaccines, their formulation strategies, production scalability, regulatory frameworks, and global supply chain systems. Several challenges—including molecular instability during synthesis and lipid nanoparticle encapsulation, reliance on specialized equipment, insufficient supply of raw materials and skilled labor, and the need for standardized production quality at scale—are underscored. These concerns are further compounded by fragmented regulatory approval processes and the complexity of maintaining cold chain logistics, particularly in low-resource settings. Addressing these barriers is essential, and emerging solutions include integrating automation and artificial intelligence to enhance manufacturing efficiency and reduce associated costs. Additionally, ongoing research aims to improve the environmental stability of mRNA vaccines, thereby reducing reliance on cold storage and increasing accessibility in developing countries. Prospective developments further encompass the globalization of regulatory standards, the concentration of production capacities, and the application of mRNA technology beyond infectious diseases, including cancer and hereditary disorders. Overall, the review emphasizes that resolving manufacturing and logistical challenges together with international cooperation and supportive policy frameworks is crucial for advancing a new era of mRNA-based therapies accessible to populations worldwide.]]></description>
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