AUTHOR=von Trapp Isabellah , Jencso Kelsey G. , Hoylman Zachary H. , Livesay Robert , Gardner W. Payton 

TITLE=On the emergent scale of bedrock groundwater contribution to headwater mountain streams

JOURNAL=Frontiers in Water

VOLUME=Volume 7 - 2025

YEAR=2025

URL=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/water/articles/10.3389/frwa.2025.1539177

DOI=10.3389/frwa.2025.1539177

ISSN=2624-9375

ABSTRACT=We investigated the contribution of bedrock groundwater to streamflow as a function of catchment scale in a headwater stream. Synoptic surveys were conducted during hydrologically important periods of the year using multiple environmental tracers in stream water, soil water, and bedrock groundwater, along a first-order montane stream, in west-central Montana. Sampled analytes included 222Rn, used to constrain total subsurface flux, and major and minor elements, used in end-member mixing analysis (EMMA) to identify the contributions of soil and bedrock groundwater to the stream. Partitioning between soil-derived and bedrock-derived groundwater was then analyzed as a function of the incremental and accumulated sub-catchment sizes. Radon results indicated that subsurface water contributions accounted for the majority of streamflow at all surveyed times. EMMA results revealed that the bedrock groundwater contribution to streamflow varied between 26% during peak snowmelt and 44% during late summer. Streamflow generation was dominated by soil groundwater contribution along the entire reach, but the bedrock groundwater contribution increased consistently with accumulated sub-catchment size. However, groundwater contributions were not well-correlated with incremental sub-catchment size. The scale at which increased bedrock groundwater discharge can be correlated with sub-catchment size appears to be >1 km2 for our study. Our results are consistent with a conceptual model where streamflow is predominantly generated by a 3D subsurface nested flow system. Local subsurface heterogeneities control the stream source at local scales but begin to average out at scales >2 km2. Our study indicates that, while soil groundwater is the dominant source, bedrock groundwater remains an important and predictable contributor to streamflow throughout the year, even in a snow-dominated, mountainous headwater catchment.